Re: Lord Soth
Posted: Tue Jan 06, 2026 4:04 am
https://threestatesrecords.com/2020/08/01/8-7-zhang-lu/
Added in 5 minutes 35 seconds:
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Lǔ therefore occupied Hànzhōng and with ghostly Dào taught the people, declaring himself “Teacher Lord.” Those that came to learn his Dào, at first were all named “Ghost Soldier,” those receiving foundational Dào and then trusted, called “Libationer.” Each commanded division armies, those with many were “Governing Head Chief Libationer.” All were taught to be honest and faithful and not cheat and deceive, if with illness than confess their faults, overall with the Huángjīn [“Yellow Scarves”] resembling one another. The various Libationers all made “Righteous Lodges,” like the present’s relay stations. They also set up Righteous rice and meat, offered at the Righteous Lodges, travelers estimated how much they needed and obtained enough; if they were excessive, the demonic Dào would then make them ill. Those that violated law, were thrice pardoned, and afterward executed. He did not install Chief Clerks, all used Libationers to govern, the people and foreign tribes found it convenient. His power occupied Bā and Hàn[zhōng] for nearly thirty years. (1) At Hàn’s end, its strength could not campaign [against Zhāng Lǔ], and therefore gave favor to Lǔ as Defending the People Internal Cadet General, designate Hànníng Administrator, but he delivered tribute and nothing more. Among the commoners someone in the ground obtained a jade seal, and the subordinates wished to honor Lǔ as King of Hànníng. Lǔ’s Merit Officer Bāxī’s Yán Pǔ remonstrated Lǔ saying: “The Hàn stream’s people, its households are more than a hundred thousand, its wealth rich and its soil fertile, and on four sides is rugged terrain; if above you rectify Heaven’s Son, then you will you will be like Huán and Wén, or else match Dòu Róng, and not lose riches and honor. Now to carry on regulation and appoint officials, your strength is sufficient to cut off, and it is not worth the trouble of ruling as a King. May you for now not declare [yourself as King], to not advance disaster.” Lǔ followed this. Due to Hán Suì and Mǎ Chāo’s chaos, the people west of the passes through Zǐwǔ valley fled to take refuge were several tens of thousand families.
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(1) Diǎnlüè states:
During Xīpíng [172-177], witch rebels greatly rose, and the three adjuncts had Luò Yào. During Guānghé [178-183], the east had Zhāng Jué, Hànzhōng had Zhāng Xiū. Luò Yào taught the people the Miǎnnì Fǎ “Method of Concealment”, [Zhāng] Jué had the Tàipíng Dào “Way of Grand Peace”, [Zhāng] Xiū had the Wǔdǒumǐ Dào “Way of Five dǒu of Rice.”
The Tàipíng Dào, the masters grasped nine integrity staff as talisman to pray, teaching sick men to knock head [on ground] and think on their faults, and then had them drink blessed water, and of the sick some daily improved and healed, and then said these men had faith in the Dào, and the rest that did not heal, then were said to not have faith in the Dào. [Zhāng] Xiū’s methods overall with [Zhāng] Jué were the same, but added granting a tranquil house, having the sick reside inside and think on their faults. Also he employed men as Treachery Control Libationer, Libationers that were masters of the Lǎo-zǐ of five thousand words, and sent to the capital to study, were called as Treachery Control. He appointed ghost officials, to manage praying for the sick. The method of praying, was to write the sick person’s surname and personal name, and say their criminal thoughts. They made three copies, one sent up to Heaven, placed on mountain top, one buried to earth, one submerged in water, calling it three offices hand written letter. They had the sick person’s families give five dǒu of rice as a standard, and therefore were called as Five dǒu Rice Teacher. In fact there was no benefit in treating illness, and only was utterly absurd, however lesser men were muddled and deceived, and competed together to serve them. Later [Zhāng] Jué was executed, and [Zhāng] Xiū also died.
When [Zhāng] Lǔ was at Hànzhōng, because its people had faith in following [Zhāng] Xiū’s enterprise, therefore expanded and ornamented it. He taught them to make Righteous Lodges, with rice and meat set inside for resting travelers; he also taught them to self conceal, those with small faults, were to use this way and go hundred steps, and then the guilt would be removed; he also relied on moon [season dependent] orders, in spring and summer prohibiting killing; he also prohibited alcohol. Refugees that came to his land, did not dare not believe.
Your Servant Sōngzhī says Zhāng Xiū should be Zhāng Héng, if it is not the Diǎnlüè‘s mistake, then it is a copyist error.
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(2) Your Servant Sōngzhī believes though Zhāng Lǔ had good heart, still he was defeated and only afterward surrendered, now to be favored with ten thousand households, five sons all as ranked Marquis, is excessive.
Xí Zuòchǐ states: Lǔ wished to declare himself King, but Yán Pǔ remonstrated and stopped him, now fief was given on [Yán] Pǔ as ranked Marquis. Rewards and punishments, are how to discourage evil and encourage good, if it can enlighten path and teaching with things, there are none far and near hidden in depth. Now Yán Pǔ remonstrated Lǔ to not be a King, and Tàizǔ in recollection gave fief on him, of future men who would not think of obedience? Stop the origin source and the ending flow itself stopped, this is what it is called. If then one does not understand this and value scorching and destructive achievement, with abundant rank and generous rewards only on to the death battle soldiers, then the people will profit from chaos, and custom will compete in killing and fighting, using weapons and relying on strength, shields and spears never stored. Tàizǔ in this fief, can be said to know the foundations of rewards and punishments, and even Tāng and Wǔ dealt with it, there would be nothing to add.
Wèilüè states: During Huángchū [220-226], increased [Yán] Pǔ rank and fief, inside ritual request. Later after over ten years he of illness died.
Jìnzhū says: Xīróng Major Yán Zuǎn was Pǔ’s grandson.
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(3) Wèilüè states: Liú Xióngmíng was a Lántián man. When young he made gathering drugs and shooting and hunting his business, always residing below Fùchē mountain, every morning and night, going out through clouds, memorizing route to not be lost, and at the time people therefore said he could become cloud and mist. During Guō [Sì] and Lǐ [Jué]’s chaos, of men many joined him. During Jiàn’ān, he attached to the province and prefecture, and the province and prefecture memorialized and recommended him as a lesser office. Mǎ Chāo and others rebelled, he would agree to follow, and [Mǎ] Chāo defeated him. Later he visited Tàizǔ, and Tàizǔ grasped his hand and said to him: “When I just entered the passes, I dream of obtaining a divine man, is it you?” Therefore he generously treated him, memorializing him as a General, sending him to welcome his followers. His followers did not wish to surrender, and therefore forced him to rebel, and various exiles all went to join him, and he had an army of several thousand men, occupying Wǔ pass road’s mouth. Tàizǔ sent Xiàhóu Yuān to suppress and defeat him, [Liú] Xióngmíng fled south to Hànzhōng. When Hànzhōng fell, he had nowhere to go, and therefore again went to surrender. Tàizǔ grabbed his beard and said: “Old rebel, [I’ve] really got you!” He restored his office, transferred to Bóhǎi. At the time there also was Chéng Yín, Hóu Xuǎn, Lǐ Kān, all Hédōng men. During Xīngpíng [193-195] chaos, each had armies of over a thousand families. Jiàn’ān Sixteenth Year [211], they all with Mǎ Chāo joined. [Mǎ] Chāo was defeated and fled, and [Lǐ] Kān on the battle lines died. [Chéng] Yín and [Hóu] Xuǎn went south into Hànzhōng, Hànzhōng fell, they went to Tàizǔ to surrender, and both were restored office and rank.
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Added in 55 minutes 34 seconds:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_g ... _immortals
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The gods are energies or principles revealing, imitating, and propagating the way of heaven (天, Tian),[2] which is the supreme godhead manifesting in the northern culmen of the starry vault of the skies and its order.[citation needed] Many gods are ancestors or men who became deities for their heavenly achievements. Most gods are also identified with stars and constellations.[3] Ancestors are regarded as the equivalent of Heaven within human society,[4] and therefore, as the means of connecting back to Heaven, which is the "utmost ancestral father" (曾祖父, zēngzǔfù).[5]
There are a variety of immortals in Chinese thought, and one major type is the xian, which is thought in some religious Taoism movements to be a human given long or infinite life. In China, "gods"(deities) are often referred to together with "xian"(immortals). Gods are innumerable, as every phenomenon has or is one or more gods, and they are organised in a complex celestial hierarchy.[6] Besides the traditional worship of these entities, Chinese folk religion, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and formal thinkers in general give theological interpretations affirming a monistic essence of divinity.[7]
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"Polytheism" and "monotheism" are categories derived from Western religion and do not fit Chinese religion, which has never conceived the two things as opposites.[8] Tian bridges the gap between supernatural phenomena and many kinds of beings, giving them a single source from spiritual energy in some Chinese belief systems.[2] However, there is a significant belief in Taoism which differentiates tian from the forces of earth and water, which are held to be equally powerful.[9]
Since all gods are considered manifestations of qì (氣), the "power" or pneuma of Heaven, in some views of tian, some scholars have employed the term "polypneumatism" or "(poly)pneumatolatry", first coined by Walter Medhurst (1796–1857), to describe the practice of Chinese polytheism.[10] Some Taoists consider deities the manifestation of the Tao.[citation needed]
In the theology of the classic texts and Confucianism, "Heaven is the lord of the hundreds of deities".[11]
Modern Confucian theology sometimes compares them to substantial forms or entelechies (inner purposes) as described by Leibniz as a force that generates all types of beings, so that "even mountains and rivers are worshipped as something capable of enjoying sacrificial offerings".[12]
Unlike in Hinduism, the deification of historical persons and ancestors is not traditionally the duty of Confucians or Taoists.[clarification needed] Rather, it depends on the choices of common people; persons are deified when they have made extraordinary deeds and have left an efficacious legacy. Yet, Confucians and Taoists traditionally may demand that state honours be granted to a particular deity. Each deity has a cult centre and ancestral temple where he or she, or the parents, lived their mortal life. There are frequently disputes over which is the original place and source temple of the cult of a deity.[13]
The gods and immortals (神仙) believed in by Taoism and Chinese mythology can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian" (immortals). "Gods" are also called deities and there are many kinds, that is, god of heaven (天神), god of ground (地祇), wuling (物灵: animism, the spirit of all things), god of netherworld (地府神灵), god of human body (人体之神), god of human ghost(人鬼之神), etc. Among these "gods" such as god of heaven (天神), god of ground (地祇), god of netherworld (阴府神灵), god of human body (人体之神) are innate beings. "Xian" (immortals) is acquired the cultivation of the Tao，persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.[14]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential ... _actuality
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Chinese traditional theology, which comes in different interpretations according to the classic texts, and specifically Confucian, Taoist, and other philosophical formulations,[15] is fundamentally monistic, that is to say, it sees the world and the gods who produce it as an organic whole, or cosmos.[16] The universal principle that gives origin to the world is conceived as transcendent and immanent to creation, at the same time.[17] The Chinese idea of the universal God is expressed in different ways. There are many names of God from the different sources of Chinese tradition.[18]
The radical Chinese terms for the universal God are Tian (天) and Shangdi (上帝, "Highest Deity") or simply, Dì (帝, "Deity").[19][20] There is also the concept of Tàidì (太帝, "Great Deity"). Dì is a title expressing dominance over the all-under-Heaven, that is, all things generated by Heaven and ordered by its cycles and by the stars.[21] Tian is usually translated as "Heaven", but by graphical etymology, it means "Great One" and a number of scholars relate it to the same Dì through phonetic etymology and trace their common root, through their archaic forms, respectively *Teeŋ and *Tees, to the symbols of the squared north celestial pole godhead (口, Dīng).[3][22] These names are combined in different ways in Chinese theological literature, often interchanged in the same paragraph, if not in the same sentence.[23]
Names of the God of Heaven
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Besides Shàngdì and Tàidì, other names include Yudi ("Jade Deity") and Taiyi ("Great Oneness") who, in mythical imagery, holds the ladle of the Big Dipper (Great Chariot), providing the movement of life to the world.[24] As the hub of the skies, the north celestial pole constellations are known, among various names, as Tiānmén (天門, "Gate of Heaven")[25] and Tiānshū (天樞, "Pivot of Heaven").[26]
Other names of the God of Heaven are attested in the vast Chinese religio-philosophical literary tradition:
Tiāndì (天帝), "Deity of Heaven" or "Emperor of Heaven":[27] "On Rectification" (Zheng lun) of the Xunzi uses this term to refer to the active God of Heaven setting creation in motion.[21]
Tianzhu (天主), the "Lord of Heaven": In "The Document of Offering Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth on the Mountain Tai" (Fengshan shu) of the Records of the Grand Historian, it is used as the title of the first God from whom all the other gods derive.[28]
Tiānhuáng (天皇), the "August Personage of Heaven": In the "Poem of Fathoming Profundity" (Si'xuan fu), transcribed in "The History of the Later Han Dynasty" (Hou Han shu), Zhang Heng ornately writes: «I ask the superintendent of the Heavenly Gate to open the door and let me visit the King of Heaven at the Jade Palace».[27]
Tianwang (天王), the "King of Heaven" or "Monarch of Heaven".
Tiāngōng (天公), the "Duke of Heaven" or "General of Heaven".[29]
Tiānjūn (天君), the "Prince of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven".[29]
Tiānzūn (天尊), the "Heavenly Venerable", also a title for high gods in Taoist theologies.[27]
Tiānshén (天神), the "God of Heaven", interpreted in the Shuowen Jiezi as "the being that gives birth to all things".[21]
Shénhuáng (神皇), "God the August", attested in Taihong ("The Origin of Vital Breath").[21]
Lǎotiānyé (老天爺), the "Olden Heavenly Father".[27]
Tian is both transcendent and immanent, manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny, and nature of things. In the Wujing yiyi (五經異義, "Different Meanings in the Five Classics"), Xu Shen explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:[28]
Huáng Tiān (皇天), "August Heaven" or "Imperial Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation.
Hào Tiān (昊天), "Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath (qi).
Mín Tiān (旻天), "Compassionate Heaven", for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-Heaven.
Shàng Tiān (上天), "Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-Heaven.
Cāng Tiān (蒼天), "Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep.
All these designations reflect a hierarchical, multiperspective experience of divinity.[18]
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In Taoism and Chinese folk religion, gods and xian[37] are often seen as embodiments of water.[38] Water gods and xian were often thought to ensure good grain harvests, mild weather and seas, and rivers with abundant water.[38] Some xian were thought to be humans who gained power by drinking "charmed water".[37]
Some gods were based on previously existing Taoist immortals, bodhisattvas, or historical figures.[39]
Stoneware figure of a Daoist (Taoist) deity. From China, Ming dynasty, 16th century CE. The British Museum
Cosmic gods
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Yudi (玉帝, "Jade Deity") or Yuhuang (玉皇, "Jade Emperor" or "Jade King"), is the popular human-like representation of the God of Heaven.[40] Jade traditionally represents purity, so it is a metaphor for the unfathomable source of creation.
Doumu (斗母, "Mother of the Great Chariot"), often entitled with the honorific Tianhou (天后, "Queen of Heaven") is the heavenly goddess portrayed as the mother of the Big Dipper (Great Chariot), whose seven stars, in addition to two invisible ones, are conceived as her sons, the Jiuhuangshen (九皇神, "Nine God-Kings"), themselves regarded as the ninefold manifestation of Jiuhuangdadi (九皇大帝, "Great Deity of the Nine Kings") or Doufu (斗父, "Father of the Great Chariot"), another name of the God of Heaven. She is, therefore, both wife and mother of the God of Heaven.[41][42]
Pangu (盤古), a macranthropic metaphor of the cosmos. He separated yin and yang, creating the earth (murky yin) and the sky (clear yang). All things were made from his body after he died.[43]
Xiwangmu (西王母, "Queen Mother of the West"),[ii] identified with the Kunlun Mountain, shamanic inspiration, death, and immortality.[45][46] She is the dark, chthonic goddess, pure yin, at the same time terrifying and benign, both creation and destruction, associated with the tiger and weaving.[47] Her male counterpart is Dongwanggong (東王公, "King Duke of the East";[iii] also called Mugong, 木公 "Duke of the Woods"),[48] who represents the yang principle.[47]
Hòuyì (后羿, "Yi the Archer"), was a man who sought for immortality, reaching Xiwangmu on her mountain, Kunlun.
Yanwang (閻王, "Purgatory King")[iv] the ruler of the underworld, assisted by the Heibai Wuchang (黑白無常, "Black and White Impermanence"), representing the alternation of yin and yang principles, alongside Ox-Head and Horse-Face, who escort spirits to his realm.
Yinyanggong (陰陽公, "Yinyang Duke"[iii]) or Yinyangsi (陰陽司, "Yinyang Controller"), the personification of the union of yin and yang.
Three Patrons and Five Deities
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Wufang Shangdi (五方上帝), the order of Heaven inscribing worlds as tán 壇, "altar", the Chinese concept equivalent to the Indian mandala. The supreme God conceptualised as the Yellow Deity, and Xuanyuan as its human form, is the heart of the universe and the other Four Deities are his emanations. The diagram is based on the Huainanzi.[50]
Statue and ceremonial complex of the Yellow and Red Gods in Zhengzhou, Henan.
Temple of the Three Officials of Heaven in Chiling, Zhangpu, Fujian.
Temple of the Great Deity of the Eastern Peak at Mount Tai, Tai'an, Shandong.
Sānhuáng (三皇, "Three Patrons or Augusts") or Sāncái (三才, "Three Potencies"); they are the "vertical" manifestation of Heaven, spatially corresponding to the Sānjiè (三界, "Three Realms"), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being:
Fuxi (伏羲) , the patron of heaven (天皇, Tiānhuáng), also called Bāguàzǔshī (八卦祖師, "Venerable Inventor of the Bagua") by the Taoists, is a divine man reputed to have taught to humanity writing, fishing, and hunting.
Nüwa (女媧), the patroness of earth (地皇, Dehuáng), is a goddess attributed for the creation of mankind and mending the order of the world when it was broken.
Shennong (神農), "Peasant God", the patron of humanity (人皇, Rénhuáng), identified as Yandi (炎帝, "Flame Deity" or "Fiery Deity"), a divine man said to have taught the techniques of farming, herbal medicine, and marketing. He is often represented as a human with horns and other features of an ox.[51]
Wǔdì (五帝, "Five Deities"),[52] also Wǔfāng Shàngdì (五方上帝, "Five Manifestations of the Highest Deity"), Wǔfāng Tiānshén (五方天神, "Five Manifestations of the Heavenly God"), Wǔfāngdì (五方帝, "Five Forms Deity"), Wǔtiāndì (五天帝, "Five Heavenly Deities"), Wǔlǎojūn (五老君, "Five Ancient Lords"), Wǔdàoshén (五道神, "Five Ways God[s]"); they are the five main "horizontal" manifestations of Heaven, and along with the Three Potencies, they have a celestial, a terrestrial, and a chthonic form. They correspond to the five phases of creation, the five constellations rotating around the celestial pole and five planets, the five sacred mountains and five directions of space (their terrestrial form), and the five Dragon Gods which represent their mounts, that is to say, the material forces they preside over (their chthonic form).[53][54]
Huangdi (黃帝, "Yellow Emperor" or "Yellow Deity"); or Huángshén (黃神, "Yellow God"), also known as Xuānyuán Huángdì (軒轅黃帝, "Yellow Deity of the Chariot Shaft"), is the Zhōngyuèdàdì (中岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Central Peak"): he represents the essence of earth and the Yellow Dragon,[51] and is associated with Saturn.[54] The character 黃 (huáng, "yellow"), by homophony and shared etymology with 皇 (huáng), also means "august", "creator", and "radiant", identifying the Yellow Emperor with Shangdi ("Highest Deity").[55] Huangdi represents the heart of creation, the axis mundi (Kunlun) that is the manifestation of the divine order in physical reality, opening the way to immortality.[51] As the deity of the centre, intersecting the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, in the Shizi he is described as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (黃帝四面, Huángdì Sìmiàn).[56] As a human, he is said to have been the fruit of a virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper (Great Chariot). She delivered her son after twenty-four months on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan (Chariot Shaft), after which he was named.[57] He is reputed to be the founder of the Huaxia civilisation, and the Han Chinese identify themselves as the descendants of Yandi and Huangdi.
Cangdi (蒼帝, "Green Deity); or Qīngdì (青帝, "Blue Deity" or "Bluegreen Deity", the Dōngdì (東帝, "East Deity") or Dōngyuèdàdì (東岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Eastern Peak"): he is Tàihào (太昊), associated with the essence of wood and with Jupiter, and is the god of fertility and spring. The Bluegreen Dragon is both his animal form and constellation.[51][54] His female consort is the goddess of fertility, Bixia.
Heidi (黑帝, "Black Deity), the Běidì (北帝, "North Deity") or Běiyuèdàdì (北岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Northern Peak"): he is Zhuanxu (顓頊), today frequently worshiped as Xuanwu (玄武, "Dark Warrior") or Zhēnwǔ (真武), and is associated with the essence of water and winter, and with Mercury. His animal form is the Black Dragon and his stellar animal is the tortoise-snake.[51][54]
Chidi (赤帝, "Red Deity"), the Nándì (帝, "South Deity") or Nányuèdàdì (南岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Southern Peak"): he is Shennong (the "Divine Farmer"), the Yandi ("Fiery Deity"), associated with the essence of fire and summer, and with Mars. His animal form is the Red Dragon and his stellar animal is the phoenix. He is the god of agriculture, animal husbandry, medicinal plants, and market.[51][54]
Baidi (白帝, "White Deity"), the Xīdì (西帝, "West Deity") or Xīyuèdàdì (西岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Western Peak"): he is Shaohao (少昊), and is the god of the essence of metal and autumn, associated with Venus. His animal form is the White Dragon and his stellar animal is the tiger.[54]
The Three Great Emperor-Officials: the Tiānguān (天官, "Official of Heaven"), the Dìguān (地官, "Official of Earth"), and the Shuǐguān (水官, "Official of Water").[9][58]
In mythology, Huangdi and Yandi fought a battle against each other, and Huang finally defeated Yan with the help of the Dragon (the controller of water, who is Huangdi himself).[59] This myth symbolizes the equipoise of yin and yang, here the fire of knowledge (reason and craft) and earthly stability.[59]
Yan (炎) is flame, scorching fire, or an excess of it (Graphically, it is a double 火 (huo, "fire").[59] As an excess of fire brings destruction to the earth, it has to be controlled by a ruling principle. Nothing is good in itself, without limits; good outcomes depend on the proportion in the composition of things and their interactions, never on extremes in absolute terms.[59] Huangdi and Yandi are complementary opposites, necessary for the existence of one another, and they are powers that exist together within the human being.
Gods of celestial and terrestrial phenomena
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Temple of the Wind God in Tainan.
Longshen (龍神, "Dragon Gods") or Lóngwáng, (龍王, "Dragon Kings"), also Sìhǎi Lóngwáng (四海龍王, "Dragon Kings of the Four Seas"), are gods of watery sources, usually reduced to four, patrons of the Four Seas (四海, sihai) and the four cardinal directions. They are the White Dragon (白龍, Báilóng), the Black Dragon (玄龍, Xuánlóng), the Red Dragon (朱龍, Zhūlóng), and the Bluegreen Dragon (青龍, Qīnglóng). Corresponding with the Five Deities as the chthonic forces that they sublimate (the Dragon Gods are often represented as the "mount" of the Five Deities), they inscribe the land of China into an ideal sacred squared boundary. The fifth dragon, the Yellow Dragon (黃龍, Huánglóng), is the dragon of the centre, representing the Yellow God.
In Taiyuan, Liu Heng, the fifth emperor of the Western Han dynasty, is worshiped as the Dragon King. This is because Liu Heng once served as the Prince of Dai of the area and was welcomed by the local people. Every year, local villagers hold a sacrifice to him on the Longtaitou Festival.[60][61]
Báoshén (雹神, "Hail God")[iv]
Bālà (八蜡), the Chóngshén (蟲神, "Insect God") or Chóngwáng (蟲王, "Insect King"): the gods of insects.[iv]
Dìzhǔshén (地主神, "Landlord God").
Dòushén (痘神, "Smallpox God").[iv]
Fei Lian (飛帘), the Fēngshén (風神, "Wind God").[iv]
Hǎishén (海神, "Sea God"); also Hǎiyé (海爷, "Sea Lord").
Hebo (河伯, "River Lord") or Héshén (河神, "River God"): any watercourse god, among which, one of the most revered is the god of the Yellow River.[iv]
Gǔshén (穀神, "Valley God"): in the Daodejing, a name used to refer to the Way[62]
Huǒshén (火神, "Fire God"), often personified as Zhurong (祝融)[iv]
Húshén (湖神, "Lake God")
Shèshén (社神, "Soil God")
Jìshén (稷神, "Grain God")
Jīnshén (金神, "Gold God"), often identified as the Qiūshén (秋神, "Autumn God") and personified as Rùshōu (蓐收)
Jǐngshén (井神, "Waterspring God").[62]
Leishen (雷神, "Thunder God") or Léigōng (雷公, "Thunder Duke");[iii] his consort is Diànmǔ (電母, "Lightning Mother").
Mùshén (木神, "Woodland God"), usually the same as the Chūnshén (春神, "Spring God"), and as Jùmáng (句芒).
Shānshén (山神, "Mountain God")
Shuǐshén (水神, "Water God")
Tudishen (土地神, "God of the Local Land"), also Tǔshén (土神, "Earth God"), or Tudigong (土地公, "Duke of the Local Land"):[iii] the tutelary deity of any locality. Their Overlord is Houtu (后土, "Queen of the Earth").[ii]
Wen Shen (瘟神, "Plague God")[iv]
Xiangshuishen (湘水神, "Xiang Waters' Goddesses"): the patrons of the Xiang River.
Xuěshén (雪神, "Snow God")
Yǔshén (雨神, "Rain God")[iv]
Xihe (羲和), the Tàiyángshén (太陽神, "Great Sun Goddess") or Shírìzhīmǔ (十日之母, "Mother of the Ten Suns").[ii]
Yuèshén (月神, "Moon Goddesses"): Chángxī (常羲) or Shí'èryuèzhīmǔ (十二月之母, "Mother of the Twelve Moons"), and Chang'e (嫦娥).
Gods of human virtues and crafts
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Guan Yu (middle), Guan Ping (his right) and Zhou Cang (his left) at a Chinese folk religious temple in Osaka, Japan. Guandi is one of the most revered gods among Han Chinese.
The Waterside Dame and her two attendants, Lin Jiuniang and Li Sanniang, at the Temple of Heavenly Harmony of the Lushan school of Red Taoism in Luodong, Yilan, Taiwan.
Temple of the Dragon Mother in Deqing, Guangdong.
Temple of the Ancestral Mother the Queen of Heaven in Qingdao, Shandong.
Some Taoist gods were thought to affect human morality and the consequences of it in certain traditions. Some Taoists beseeched gods, multiple gods, and/or pantheons to aid them in life and/or abolish their sins.[63]
The six Jade Maidens, as depicted in The Ordination of Empress Zhang (detail)
Civil and military (wen and wu) deities:
Wendi (文帝, "Culture Deity"), also Wénchāngdì (文昌帝, "Deity who Makes Culture Thrive") or Wénchāngwáng (文昌王, "King who Makes Culture Thrive"): in southern provinces, this deity takes the identity of various historical persons, while in the north, he is more frequently identified as being the same as Confucius (孔夫子, Kǒngfūzǐ)
Kuixing (魁星, "Chief Star"): another god of culture and literature, but specifically, examination, is a personification of the man who awakens to the order of the Great Chariot.
Wǔdì (武帝, "Military Deity"): Guandì (關帝, "Divus Guan"), also called Guāngōng (關公, "Duke Guan"),[iii] and popularly Guānyǔ (關羽).[ii]
Another class is the Zhànshén (戰神, "Fight God"), who may be personified by Chiyou (蚩尤) or Xingtian (刑天), who was decapitated for fighting against Tian.
Baoshengdadi (保生大帝, "Great Deity who Protects Life").[v]
Baxian (八仙, "Eight Immortals").
Canshen (蠶神, "Silkworm God"), who may be:
Cánmǔ (蠶母, "Silkworm Mother"), also called Cángū (蠶姑, "Silkworm Maiden"), who is identified as Leizu (嫘祖), the wife of the Yellow Emperor: the invention of sericulture is attributed primarily to her.
Qīngyīshén (青衣神, "Bluegreen-Clad God"): his name as a human was Cáncóng (蠶叢, "Silkworm Twig"), and he is the first ruler and ancestor of the Shu state and promoter of sericulture among his people.
Caishen (財神, "Wealth God").[ii]
Yánshén (鹽神, "Salt God"): a pantheon of salt deities that bring wealth to their adherents, including ChiYou for his blood turned into a pool of salt after he died in some tellings, Sushashi for being the first to extract salt from seawater in mythology, Guan Zhong for he gave his state an official monopoly on salt operations, and animals of all types, such as crows and deer, which were credited with leading humans to salt and thus granted divinity. Many of the salt gods can be worshipped as wealth gods.[64]
Cangjie (倉頡), the four-eyed inventor of the Chinese characters.
Cāngshén (倉神, "Granary God").
Chuānzhǔ (川主, "Lord of Sichuan")
Chenghuangshen (城隍神, "Moat and Walls God", or "Boundary God"): the god of the sacred boundaries of a human agglomeration, he is often personified by founding fathers or noble personalities from each city or town.[ii]
Chen Jinggu (陳靖姑, "Old Quiet Lady"), also called Línshuǐ Fūrén (臨水夫人, "Waterside Dame").[v]
Hùshén (戶神, "Gate God").
Chēshén (車神, "Vehicle God")[iv]
Erlangshen (二郎神, "Twice Young God"), the god of engineering.
Guǎngzé Zūnwáng (廣澤尊王, "Honorific King of Great Compassion").[v]
Guanyin (觀音, "She who Hears the Cries of the World"), the goddess of mercy.[ii]
Huang Daxian (黃大仙, "Great Immortal Huang").
Jigong (濟公, "Help Lord").
Jiǔshén (酒神, "Wine God"), personified as Yidi (儀狄).[iv]
Jiutian Xuannü (九天玄女, "Mysterious Lady of the Nine Heavens"), a disciple of Xiwangmu and initiator of Huangdi.
Longmu (龍母, "Dragon Mother").
Lu Ban (魯班), the god of carpentry.
Lùshén (路神, "Road God").[iv]
Xíngshén (行神, "Walking God").
Mazu (媽祖, "Ancestral Mother"), often entitled the "Queen of Heaven".[vi]
Pànguān (判官, "Judging Official").
Píng'ānshén (平安神, "Peace God"), an embodiment of whom is considered to have been Mao Zedong.[66]
Qingshui Zushi (清水祖師, "Venerable Patriarch of the Clear Stream")[v]
Táoshén (陶神, "Pottery God")[iv]
Tuershen (兔兒神, "Leveret God"), the god of love among males.
Tuōtǎlǐ Tiānwáng (托塔李天王, "Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King"), also known as Li Jing (李靖). He has three sons, the warlike protector deities Jinzha (金吒), Muzha (木吒), and Nezha (哪吒).
Wǔxiǎn (五顯, "Five Shining Ones"), possibly a popular form of the cosmological Five Deities.[v]
Xǐshén (喜神, "Joy God").
Yàoshén (藥神, "Medicine God") or frequently Yàowáng (藥王, "Medicine King").[iv]
Yuexia Laoren (月下老人, "Old Man Under the Moon"), the matchmaker who pairs lovers together.
Yùshén (獄神, "Jail-Purgatory God")[iv]
Zaoshen (灶神, "Hearth God"), the master of the household deities, including the "Bed God" (床神, Chuángshén), the "Gate Gods" (門神, Ménshén), and the "Toilet god" (廁神, Cèshén), often personified as Zigu.
Zhong Kui (鍾馗), the vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings.
Sanxing (三星, "Three Stars"), a cluster of three astral gods of well-being:
Fuxing (福星, "Prosperity Star"), god of happiness.
Luxing (祿星, "Firmness Star"), god of firmness and success in life and examinations.
Shouxing (壽星, "Longevity Star"), who stands for a healthy and long life.
Gods of animal and vegetal life
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Huāshén (花神, "Flower Goddess").
Huxian (狐神, "Fox God[dess]") or Húxiān (狐仙, "Fox Immortal"), also called Húxiān Niángniáng (狐仙娘娘, "Fox Immortal Lady").[vii]
Two other great fox deities, peculiar to northeast China, are the "Great Lord of the Three Foxes" (胡三太爷, Húsān Tàiyé) and the "Great Lady of the Three Foxes" (胡三太奶, Húsān Tàinǎi), representing the yin and yang.[vii]
Mǎshén (馬神, "Horse God") or Mǎwáng (马王, "Horse King").[iv]
Niúshén (牛神, "Cattle God" or "Ox God"), also called Niúwáng (牛王, "Cattle King").[iv]
Lángshén (狼神, "Wolf God").[iv]
Shùshén (樹神, "Tree God[s]").
Wǔgǔshén (五谷神, "Five Cereals God"),[iv] another name for Shennong.
Yuánshén (猿神, "Monkey God") or Yuánwáng (猿王, "Monkey King"), who is identified as Sun Wukong (孙悟空).[viii]
Zhīmáshén (芝蔴神, "Sesame God")[iv]
Bixia mother goddess worship
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"Bixia" redirects here. For the regal address, see Emperor of China.
Taiwanese wooden icon of the Queen of the Earth (Houtu).
The worship of mother goddesses for the cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as Bixia Yuanjun (碧霞元君, "Lady of the Blue Dawn"), also known as the Tiānxiān Niángniáng (天仙娘娘, "Heavenly Immortal Lady") or Tàishān Niángniáng (泰山娘娘, "Lady of Mount Tai"),[ix] or also Jiǔtiān Shèngmǔ (九天聖母,[68] "Holy Mother of the Nine Skies"[x])[69]: 149–150 or Houtu, the goddess of the earth.[70]
Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess Xiwangmu.[71] The general Chinese term for "goddess" is nǚshén (女神), and goddesses may receive many qualifying titles, including mǔ (母, "mother"), lǎomǔ (老母, "old mother"), shèngmǔ (聖母, "holy mother"), niángniáng (娘娘, "lady"), nǎinai (奶奶, "granny").
The additional eight main goddesses of fertility, reproduction, and growth are:[69]: 149–150, 191, note 18
Bānzhěn Niángniáng (瘢疹娘娘), the goddess who protects children from illness.
Cuīshēng Niángniáng (催生娘娘), the goddess who gives swift childbirth and protects midwives.
Nǎimǔ Niángniáng (奶母娘娘), the goddess who presides over maternal milk and protects nursing.
Péigū Niángniáng (培姑娘娘), the goddess who cultivates children.
Péiyǎng Niángniáng (培養娘娘), the goddess who protects the upbringing of children.
Songzi Niangniang (送子娘娘) or Zǐsūn Niángniáng (子孫娘娘), the goddess who presides over offspring.
Yǎnguāng Niángniáng (眼光娘娘), the goddess who protects eyesight.
Yǐnméng Niángniáng (引蒙娘娘), the goddess who guides young children.
Altars of goddess worship are usually arranged with Bixia at the center and two goddesses at her sides, most frequently the "Lady of Eyesight" and the "Lady of Offspring".[69]: 149–150, 191, note 18 A different figure, but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the "Goddess of the Seven Stars" (七星娘娘, Qīxīng Niángniáng).[xi]
There is also the cluster of the "Holy Mothers of the Three Skies" (三霄聖母, Sānxiāo Shèngmǔ; or 三霄娘娘, Sānxiāo Niángniáng, "Ladies of the Three Stars"), composed of Yunxiao Guniang, Qiongxiao Guniang, and Bixiao Guniang.[72] The cult of Chenjinggu, present in southeast China, is identified by some scholars as an emanation of the northern cult of Bixia.[73]
Other goddesses worshipped in China include Cánmǔ (蠶母, "Silkworm Mother") or Cángū (蠶姑, "Silkworm Maiden"),[70] identified with Leizu (嫘祖, the wife of the Yellow Emperor), Magu (麻姑, "Hemp Maiden"), Saoqing Niang (掃清娘, "Goddess who Sweeps Clean"),[xii][74] Sānzhōu Niángniáng (三洲娘娘, "Goddess of the Three Isles"),[74] and Wusheng Laomu. The mother goddess is central in the theology of many folk religious sects.[70]
Gods of northeast China
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See also: Wudaxian and Northeast China folk religion
Northeast China has clusters of deities which are peculiar to the area, deriving from the Manchu and broader Tungusic substratum of the local population. Animal deities related to shamanic practices are characteristic of the area and reflect wider Chinese cosmology. Besides the aforementioned Fox Gods (狐仙, Húxiān), they include:[citation needed]
Huángxiān (黃仙, "Yellow Immortal", the Weasel God.
Shéxiān (蛇仙, "Snake Immortal"), also variously called Liǔxiān (柳仙, "Immortal Liu"), or Chángxiān (常仙, "Viper Immortal") or also Mǎngxiān (蟒仙, "Python or Boa Immortal").
Báixiān (白仙, "White Immortal"), the Hedgehog God.
Hēixiān (黑仙, "Black Immortal"), who may be the Wūyāxiān (烏鴉仙, "Crow Immortal"), or the Huīxiān (灰仙, "Rat Immortal"), with the latter considered a misinterpretation of the former.
Gods of Indian origin
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Temple of the Four-Faced God in Changhua, Taiwan.
Gods who have been adopted into Chinese religion but who have their origins in the Indian subcontinent or Hinduism:
Guanyin (觀音, "She who Hears the Cries of the World"), a Chinese goddess of mercy modeled after the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
Sìmiànshén (四面神, "Four-Faced God"), but also a metaphor for "Ubiquitous God": The recent cult has its origin in the Thai transmission of the Hindu god Brahma, but it is also an epithet of the indigenous Chinese god Huangdi who, as the deity of the centre of the cosmos, is described in the Shizi as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (黃帝四面, Huángdì Sìmiàn).[56]
Xiàngtóushén (象頭神, "Elephant-Head God"), is the Indian god Ganesha.[75]
Gods of North China and Mongolia
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Genghis Khan (成吉思汗, Chéngjísīhán), worshipped by Mongols and Chinese under a variety of divinity titles, including Shèngwǔ Huángdì (聖武皇帝, "Holy Military Sovereign Deity"), Fǎtiān Qǐyùn (法天啓運, "Starter of the Transmission of the Law of Heaven"), and Tàizǔ (太祖, "Great Ancestor") of the Yuan and the Mongols.
Gods of folk and Local
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Heng and Ha (哼哈二將), two generals of the Shang dynasty, guards of Buddhist temples in East Asia.[76]
Menshen (門神, "Door Gods"), divine guardians of doors and gates.
Shentu and Yulü (鬱壘), a pair of deities who punished evil spirits.
Luoshen (洛神), the goddess of the Luo River.
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Húxiān (simplified Chinese: 胡仙; traditional Chinese: 狐仙; trans. "Fox Immortal"), also called Húshén (胡神; 狐神; "Fox God") or Húwáng (胡王; 狐王; "Fox Ruler")[1] is a deity in Chinese religion whose cult is present in provinces of north China (from Henan and Shandong northwards), but especially in northeast China where it can be said to be the most popular deity.[2]
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Northeast China was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including the Koreans, Manchus (or Jurchens), Ulchs, Hezhen (also known as the Goldi and Nanai), Sushen, Xianbei, and Mohe.
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The Northern dynasties, all of which were either led or heavily influenced by the Xianbei, opposed and promoted sinicization at one point or another but trended towards the latter and had merged with the general Chinese population by the Tang dynasty.[19][20][21][22][23] The Northern Wei also arranged for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the Tuoba imperial clan in the 480s.[24] More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.[25]
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The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multilingual, multi-ethnic confederation.[23][24][25][26]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuoba
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate
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The frequency of R1a1a is comparatively low among some Turkic-speaking groups like Yakuts, yet levels are higher (19 to 28%) in certain Turkic or Mongolic-speaking groups of Northwestern China, such as the Bonan, Dongxiang, Salar, and Uyghurs.[16][116][117]
A Chinese paper published in 2018 found R1a-Z94 in 38.5% (15/39) of a sample of Keriyalik Uyghurs from Darya Boyi / Darya Boye Village, Yutian County, Xinjiang (于田县达里雅布依乡), R1a-Z93 in 28.9% (22/76) of a sample of Dolan Uyghurs from Horiqol township, Awat County, Xinjiang (阿瓦提县乌鲁却勒镇), and R1a-Z93 in 6.3% (4/64) of a sample of Loplik Uyghurs from Karquga / Qarchugha Village, Yuli County, Xinjiang (尉犁县喀尔曲尕乡). R1a(xZ93) was observed only in one of 76 Dolan Uyghurs.[118] Note that Darya Boyi Village is located in a remote oasis formed by the Keriya River in the Taklamakan Desert. A 2011 Y-DNA study found Y-dna R1a1 in 10% of a sample of southern Hui people from Yunnan, 1.6% of a sample of Tibetan people from Tibet (Tibet Autonomous Region), 1.6% of a sample of Xibe people from Xinjiang, 3.2% of a sample of northern Hui from Ningxia, 9.4% of a sample of Hazak (Kazakhs) from Xinjiang, and rates of 24.0%, 22.2%, 35.2%, 29.2% in 4 different samples of Uyghurs from Xinjiang, 9.1% in a sample of Mongols from Inner Mongolia. A different subclade of R1 was also found in 1.5% of a sample of northern Hui from Ningxia.[119] in the same study there were no cases of R1a detected at all in 6 samples of Han Chinese in Yunnan, 1 sample of Han in Guangxi, 5 samples of Han in Guizhou, 2 samples of Han in Guangdong, 2 samples of Han in Fujian, 2 samples of Han in Zhejiang, 1 sample of Han in Shanghai, 1 samples of Han in Jiangxi, 2 samples of Han in Hunan, 1 sample of Han in Hubei, 2 samples of Han in Sichuan, 1 sample of Han in Chongqing, 3 samples of Han in Shandong, 5 samples of Han in Gansu, 3 samples of Han in Jilin and 2 samples of Han in Heilongjiang.[120] 40% of Salars, 45.2% of Tajiks of Xinjiang, 54.3% of Dongxiang, 60.6% of Tatars and 68.9% of Kyrgyz in Xinjiang in northwestern China tested in one sample had R1a1-M17. Bao'an (Bonan) had the most haplogroup diversity of 0.8946±0.0305 while the other ethnic minorities in northwestern China had a high haplogroup diversity like Central Asians, of 0.7602±0.0546.[121]
In Eastern Siberia, R1a1a is found among certain indigenous ethnic groups including Kamchatkans and Chukotkans, and peaking in Itel'man at 22%.[122]
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The Shimar (Shammar) Bedouin tribe in Kuwait show the highest frequency in the Middle East at 43%.[124][125][126]
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Further to the north of these Western Asian regions on the other hand, R1a1a levels start to increase in the Caucasus, once again in an uneven way. Several populations studied have shown no sign of R1a1a, while highest levels so far discovered in the region appears to belong to speakers of the Karachay-Balkar language among whom about one quarter of men tested so far are in haplogroup R1a1a.[3]
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Russian filmmaker Andrei Proshkin used Karachay–Balkar for The Horde, believing that it might be the closest language to the original Kipchak language which was spoken during the Golden Horde.[12]
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Most of the dialogue in The Horde is in the Karachay-Balkar language (with Russian overdub in the theatrical release). The filmmakers considered Karachay-Balkar to be the living language most closely resembling Kipchak spoken by the 14th century Golden Horde.[2] Nevertheless, none of the actors of Turkic extraction are native speakers of the language; Dakayarov, Lvov, and Yegorov are Yakuts, whereas Hairullina is Volga Tatar.
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In a 2015 paper, Gerhard Jäger of the University of Tübingen reported "intriguing" and "controversial" findings regarding Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Indo-European and other language families. Using a variant of mass lexical comparison, augmented by computational linguistic techniques, such as large-scale statistical analysis, Jäger investigated "deep genetic relations" between many different language families. To increase the chances that genuine genetic relationships were detected, he eliminated from consideration "rogue taxa," languages and families that had ambiguous positions because of random similarities or recent language contact.
Jäger found evidence that Chukotko-Kamchatkan and the Indo-European languages had statistically-significant similarities with each other, suggesting that they may have once formed part of a clade. On the whole, similarities between the two families were greater than either shared with any other language family. That was the case even when Jäger factored in similarities in phonology that were likely random coincidences (such as a "surprisingly high number" of resemblances in vocabulary between Chukotko-Kamchatkan and the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages).
According to Jäger, when these "rogue taxa" were removed, the confidence value of a notional "Indo-European/Chukotko-Kamchatkan clade" fell only slightly, from 0.969 to a still statistically-significant 0.964.[7]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itelmen_language
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There are two points of view about where Itelmen belongs genetically. According to the first theory, Itelmen and Chukotkan descend from a common proto-language; the sharp differences of Itelmen, noticed at all levels, are explained by the intense influence of other languages. It is suggested that Itelmen absorbed a different non-Chukotko-Kamchatkan language.[5] According to the second theory, Itelmen is not related to other Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages; common elements are due to contact.[6]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutka
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The Itelmens subscribed to a polytheistic religion. The creative god was referred to as Kutka or Kutga. Though he is regarded as the creator of all things, Steller describes a complete lack of veneration for him. The Itelmens attribute the problems and difficulties of life to his stupidity, and are quick to scold or curse him.[5] They believed Kutka to be married to an intelligent woman named Chachy, who was said to have kept him from much foolishness and to have corrected him constantly. Kutka was believed to have lived on the greatest rivers of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and is said to have left a son and daughter for each river, which is used to explain the great variety of dialects present on the peninsula. The Itelmens also worshiped several spirits, Mitgh, who dwelled in the ocean and lived in the form of a fish. They believed in forest sprites, who were called ushakhtchu, said to resemble people. The mountain gods were called gamuli or little souls, who resided in the high mountains, especially volcanoes. The clouds were believed to be inhabited by the god billukai, who was responsible for thunder, lightning and storms. They postulated a devil, who was called Kamma, who was said to live in a tree outside Nizhnoi village, which was annually shot up with arrows.[4]
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The Itelmens he found there had captured a Japanese merchant's clerk named Dembei, who had been part of an expedition that was shipwrecked and overtaken by Itelmens upon arrival at the Kamchatka River. Atlasov, who initially assumed the prisoner to be a Hindu from India, resulting from confusion over the word "Hondo" or Tokyo, had him sent to Moscow where Peter the Great had him establish a Japanese-language school.[6]
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Transcribed Ogham inscriptions, which lack a letter for /p/, show Primitive Irish to be similar in morphology and inflections to Gaulish, Latin, Classical Greek and Sanskrit. Many of the characteristics of modern (and medieval) Irish, such as initial mutations, distinct "broad" and "slender" consonants and consonant clusters, are not yet apparent.
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Primitive Irish has a morphology similar to other Indo-European languages, however it did not display the most distinctive characteristics of other phases of the language including velarized ("broad") and palatalized ("slender") consonants (such consonant alterations may have existed, but they would have been allophonic), initial mutations, some loss of inflectional endings, but not of case marking, and consonant clusters.[38] Old Irish does carry with it these distinctive features, as well as the loss of grammatical suffixes, the introduction of the letter p through loanwords and proper names,[39][40] the simplification of the inflectional system,[41] the alteration of some short vowels through vowel harmony,[42] and, most notably, vowel elisions which resulted in distinctive consonant clusters.[42][43]
This last phenomenon, especially marked in the genesis of Old Irish proper, began with an application of secondary stress to the third syllable of most words with four or more syllables, and also to the fifth syllable of words with six or more, in addition to the primary stress, which fell on the first syllable, as is typical of Celtic languages.[42][44] This caused apocope of (final) syllables, syncope of stressless (internal) syllables, and the shortening of all long vowels in non-initial syllables, around 500 AD and the middle of the 6th century, respectively.[42][45][46] This loss of vowels caused consonant clusters to develop.
As an example, a 5th-century king of Leinster, whose name is recorded in Old Irish king-lists and annals as Mac Caírthinn Uí Enechglaiss, is memorialised on an Ogham stone near where he died. This gives the late Primitive Irish version of his name (in the genitive case), as MAQI CAIRATINI AVI INEQAGLAS.[47] Similarly, the Corcu Duibne, a people of County Kerry known from Old Irish sources, are memorialised on a number of stones in their territory as DOVINIAS.[48] Old Irish filed, "poet (gen.)", appears in ogham as VELITAS.[49] In each case the development of Primitive to Old Irish shows the loss of unstressed syllables and certain consonant changes.
Gradually, the grammaticalization of consonant mutations introduced a new characteristic that Irish would eventually share with all other modern Celtic languages.[50] Old Irish phonetic conditions generated different allophonic mutations over time, and with the diachronic loss of the conditions which caused the mutations, those mutations became the only way to distinguish between different grammatical forms. Thus, the mutations became differentiated phonemes with their own morphosyntactic functions. For example, in the Primitive Irish phrase SINDHI MAQQI ("of the son", SINDHI being a form of the definite article), originally pronounced ˈsɪndiː ˈmakʷiː, the initial M would have lenited to /β̃/ due to the influence of the -I ending of the preceding word. The variation in the pronunciation of the word would not have caused a difference in meaning; it would be allophonic. In a later stage of the language, the Primitive Irish word SINDHI became Old Irish in, losing the final vowel which caused the lenition. However, in the Old Irish phrase in maicc ("of the son"), the m is still lenited, so the pronunciation would be /ɪn β̃ak/. The lenition was 'reinterpreted' as being caused by the fact that maicc follows the definite article in, a rule of morphosyntax (grammar) rather than phonology. What was originally a phonological feature of the language therefore became grammaticalized.[41][51]
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In the Primitive Irish language (c. 300 to 500s CE), the phrase sindhi maqqi meant "of the son". Over time, the word sindhi evolved into the Old Irish word in, losing the final vowel and changing its pronunciation and exact grammatical function.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu
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No descriptions of Lü Bu's physical appearance exist in historical records. It was noted that he specialized in archery and horse-riding, and possessed great physical strength. He was nicknamed "Flying General" (飛將軍) for his martial prowess.[Sanguozhi 1] He also owned a powerful steed known as the "Red Hare".[Sanguozhi 2][Houhanshu 1] The Cao Man Zhuan recorded that there was a saying at the time to describe Lü Bu and the Red Hare: "Among men, Lü Bu; Among steeds, Red Hare)".[Sanguozhi zhu 1]
Lü Bu is described as follows in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms:
[...] a lofty and dignified look, a majestic and awe-inspiring bearing, wielding a fangtian huaji, [...] hair pulled back and worn in a golden headdress, donning a flowery-patterned battle robe, encased in body armour decorated with images of the ni,[c] wearing a precious belt adorned with the image of a lion, [...][5]
Biography
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Service under Ding Yuan and defection to Dong Zhuo
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An illustration of Lü Bu killing Ding Yuan (呂布弒丁原) in the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing.
Lü Bu was from Jiuyuan County (九原縣), Wuyuan Commandery, which is near present-day Baotou, Inner Mongolia. He was known for his martial valour in Bing Province. When Ding Yuan, the Inspector (刺史) of Bing Province, was appointed as a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉) by the Han central government and ordered to garrison at Henei Commandery, he recruited Lü Bu as a Registrar (主簿) and treated him kindly.
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Lǔ therefore occupied Hànzhōng and with ghostly Dào taught the people, declaring himself “Teacher Lord.” Those that came to learn his Dào, at first were all named “Ghost Soldier,” those receiving foundational Dào and then trusted, called “Libationer.” Each commanded division armies, those with many were “Governing Head Chief Libationer.” All were taught to be honest and faithful and not cheat and deceive, if with illness than confess their faults, overall with the Huángjīn [“Yellow Scarves”] resembling one another. The various Libationers all made “Righteous Lodges,” like the present’s relay stations. They also set up Righteous rice and meat, offered at the Righteous Lodges, travelers estimated how much they needed and obtained enough; if they were excessive, the demonic Dào would then make them ill. Those that violated law, were thrice pardoned, and afterward executed. He did not install Chief Clerks, all used Libationers to govern, the people and foreign tribes found it convenient. His power occupied Bā and Hàn[zhōng] for nearly thirty years. (1) At Hàn’s end, its strength could not campaign [against Zhāng Lǔ], and therefore gave favor to Lǔ as Defending the People Internal Cadet General, designate Hànníng Administrator, but he delivered tribute and nothing more. Among the commoners someone in the ground obtained a jade seal, and the subordinates wished to honor Lǔ as King of Hànníng. Lǔ’s Merit Officer Bāxī’s Yán Pǔ remonstrated Lǔ saying: “The Hàn stream’s people, its households are more than a hundred thousand, its wealth rich and its soil fertile, and on four sides is rugged terrain; if above you rectify Heaven’s Son, then you will you will be like Huán and Wén, or else match Dòu Róng, and not lose riches and honor. Now to carry on regulation and appoint officials, your strength is sufficient to cut off, and it is not worth the trouble of ruling as a King. May you for now not declare [yourself as King], to not advance disaster.” Lǔ followed this. Due to Hán Suì and Mǎ Chāo’s chaos, the people west of the passes through Zǐwǔ valley fled to take refuge were several tens of thousand families.
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(1) Diǎnlüè states:
During Xīpíng [172-177], witch rebels greatly rose, and the three adjuncts had Luò Yào. During Guānghé [178-183], the east had Zhāng Jué, Hànzhōng had Zhāng Xiū. Luò Yào taught the people the Miǎnnì Fǎ “Method of Concealment”, [Zhāng] Jué had the Tàipíng Dào “Way of Grand Peace”, [Zhāng] Xiū had the Wǔdǒumǐ Dào “Way of Five dǒu of Rice.”
The Tàipíng Dào, the masters grasped nine integrity staff as talisman to pray, teaching sick men to knock head [on ground] and think on their faults, and then had them drink blessed water, and of the sick some daily improved and healed, and then said these men had faith in the Dào, and the rest that did not heal, then were said to not have faith in the Dào. [Zhāng] Xiū’s methods overall with [Zhāng] Jué were the same, but added granting a tranquil house, having the sick reside inside and think on their faults. Also he employed men as Treachery Control Libationer, Libationers that were masters of the Lǎo-zǐ of five thousand words, and sent to the capital to study, were called as Treachery Control. He appointed ghost officials, to manage praying for the sick. The method of praying, was to write the sick person’s surname and personal name, and say their criminal thoughts. They made three copies, one sent up to Heaven, placed on mountain top, one buried to earth, one submerged in water, calling it three offices hand written letter. They had the sick person’s families give five dǒu of rice as a standard, and therefore were called as Five dǒu Rice Teacher. In fact there was no benefit in treating illness, and only was utterly absurd, however lesser men were muddled and deceived, and competed together to serve them. Later [Zhāng] Jué was executed, and [Zhāng] Xiū also died.
When [Zhāng] Lǔ was at Hànzhōng, because its people had faith in following [Zhāng] Xiū’s enterprise, therefore expanded and ornamented it. He taught them to make Righteous Lodges, with rice and meat set inside for resting travelers; he also taught them to self conceal, those with small faults, were to use this way and go hundred steps, and then the guilt would be removed; he also relied on moon [season dependent] orders, in spring and summer prohibiting killing; he also prohibited alcohol. Refugees that came to his land, did not dare not believe.
Your Servant Sōngzhī says Zhāng Xiū should be Zhāng Héng, if it is not the Diǎnlüè‘s mistake, then it is a copyist error.
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(2) Your Servant Sōngzhī believes though Zhāng Lǔ had good heart, still he was defeated and only afterward surrendered, now to be favored with ten thousand households, five sons all as ranked Marquis, is excessive.
Xí Zuòchǐ states: Lǔ wished to declare himself King, but Yán Pǔ remonstrated and stopped him, now fief was given on [Yán] Pǔ as ranked Marquis. Rewards and punishments, are how to discourage evil and encourage good, if it can enlighten path and teaching with things, there are none far and near hidden in depth. Now Yán Pǔ remonstrated Lǔ to not be a King, and Tàizǔ in recollection gave fief on him, of future men who would not think of obedience? Stop the origin source and the ending flow itself stopped, this is what it is called. If then one does not understand this and value scorching and destructive achievement, with abundant rank and generous rewards only on to the death battle soldiers, then the people will profit from chaos, and custom will compete in killing and fighting, using weapons and relying on strength, shields and spears never stored. Tàizǔ in this fief, can be said to know the foundations of rewards and punishments, and even Tāng and Wǔ dealt with it, there would be nothing to add.
Wèilüè states: During Huángchū [220-226], increased [Yán] Pǔ rank and fief, inside ritual request. Later after over ten years he of illness died.
Jìnzhū says: Xīróng Major Yán Zuǎn was Pǔ’s grandson.
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(3) Wèilüè states: Liú Xióngmíng was a Lántián man. When young he made gathering drugs and shooting and hunting his business, always residing below Fùchē mountain, every morning and night, going out through clouds, memorizing route to not be lost, and at the time people therefore said he could become cloud and mist. During Guō [Sì] and Lǐ [Jué]’s chaos, of men many joined him. During Jiàn’ān, he attached to the province and prefecture, and the province and prefecture memorialized and recommended him as a lesser office. Mǎ Chāo and others rebelled, he would agree to follow, and [Mǎ] Chāo defeated him. Later he visited Tàizǔ, and Tàizǔ grasped his hand and said to him: “When I just entered the passes, I dream of obtaining a divine man, is it you?” Therefore he generously treated him, memorializing him as a General, sending him to welcome his followers. His followers did not wish to surrender, and therefore forced him to rebel, and various exiles all went to join him, and he had an army of several thousand men, occupying Wǔ pass road’s mouth. Tàizǔ sent Xiàhóu Yuān to suppress and defeat him, [Liú] Xióngmíng fled south to Hànzhōng. When Hànzhōng fell, he had nowhere to go, and therefore again went to surrender. Tàizǔ grabbed his beard and said: “Old rebel, [I’ve] really got you!” He restored his office, transferred to Bóhǎi. At the time there also was Chéng Yín, Hóu Xuǎn, Lǐ Kān, all Hédōng men. During Xīngpíng [193-195] chaos, each had armies of over a thousand families. Jiàn’ān Sixteenth Year [211], they all with Mǎ Chāo joined. [Mǎ] Chāo was defeated and fled, and [Lǐ] Kān on the battle lines died. [Chéng] Yín and [Hóu] Xuǎn went south into Hànzhōng, Hànzhōng fell, they went to Tàizǔ to surrender, and both were restored office and rank.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_g ... _immortals
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The gods are energies or principles revealing, imitating, and propagating the way of heaven (天, Tian),[2] which is the supreme godhead manifesting in the northern culmen of the starry vault of the skies and its order.[citation needed] Many gods are ancestors or men who became deities for their heavenly achievements. Most gods are also identified with stars and constellations.[3] Ancestors are regarded as the equivalent of Heaven within human society,[4] and therefore, as the means of connecting back to Heaven, which is the "utmost ancestral father" (曾祖父, zēngzǔfù).[5]
There are a variety of immortals in Chinese thought, and one major type is the xian, which is thought in some religious Taoism movements to be a human given long or infinite life. In China, "gods"(deities) are often referred to together with "xian"(immortals). Gods are innumerable, as every phenomenon has or is one or more gods, and they are organised in a complex celestial hierarchy.[6] Besides the traditional worship of these entities, Chinese folk religion, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and formal thinkers in general give theological interpretations affirming a monistic essence of divinity.[7]
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"Polytheism" and "monotheism" are categories derived from Western religion and do not fit Chinese religion, which has never conceived the two things as opposites.[8] Tian bridges the gap between supernatural phenomena and many kinds of beings, giving them a single source from spiritual energy in some Chinese belief systems.[2] However, there is a significant belief in Taoism which differentiates tian from the forces of earth and water, which are held to be equally powerful.[9]
Since all gods are considered manifestations of qì (氣), the "power" or pneuma of Heaven, in some views of tian, some scholars have employed the term "polypneumatism" or "(poly)pneumatolatry", first coined by Walter Medhurst (1796–1857), to describe the practice of Chinese polytheism.[10] Some Taoists consider deities the manifestation of the Tao.[citation needed]
In the theology of the classic texts and Confucianism, "Heaven is the lord of the hundreds of deities".[11]
Modern Confucian theology sometimes compares them to substantial forms or entelechies (inner purposes) as described by Leibniz as a force that generates all types of beings, so that "even mountains and rivers are worshipped as something capable of enjoying sacrificial offerings".[12]
Unlike in Hinduism, the deification of historical persons and ancestors is not traditionally the duty of Confucians or Taoists.[clarification needed] Rather, it depends on the choices of common people; persons are deified when they have made extraordinary deeds and have left an efficacious legacy. Yet, Confucians and Taoists traditionally may demand that state honours be granted to a particular deity. Each deity has a cult centre and ancestral temple where he or she, or the parents, lived their mortal life. There are frequently disputes over which is the original place and source temple of the cult of a deity.[13]
The gods and immortals (神仙) believed in by Taoism and Chinese mythology can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian" (immortals). "Gods" are also called deities and there are many kinds, that is, god of heaven (天神), god of ground (地祇), wuling (物灵: animism, the spirit of all things), god of netherworld (地府神灵), god of human body (人体之神), god of human ghost(人鬼之神), etc. Among these "gods" such as god of heaven (天神), god of ground (地祇), god of netherworld (阴府神灵), god of human body (人体之神) are innate beings. "Xian" (immortals) is acquired the cultivation of the Tao，persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.[14]
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Chinese traditional theology, which comes in different interpretations according to the classic texts, and specifically Confucian, Taoist, and other philosophical formulations,[15] is fundamentally monistic, that is to say, it sees the world and the gods who produce it as an organic whole, or cosmos.[16] The universal principle that gives origin to the world is conceived as transcendent and immanent to creation, at the same time.[17] The Chinese idea of the universal God is expressed in different ways. There are many names of God from the different sources of Chinese tradition.[18]
The radical Chinese terms for the universal God are Tian (天) and Shangdi (上帝, "Highest Deity") or simply, Dì (帝, "Deity").[19][20] There is also the concept of Tàidì (太帝, "Great Deity"). Dì is a title expressing dominance over the all-under-Heaven, that is, all things generated by Heaven and ordered by its cycles and by the stars.[21] Tian is usually translated as "Heaven", but by graphical etymology, it means "Great One" and a number of scholars relate it to the same Dì through phonetic etymology and trace their common root, through their archaic forms, respectively *Teeŋ and *Tees, to the symbols of the squared north celestial pole godhead (口, Dīng).[3][22] These names are combined in different ways in Chinese theological literature, often interchanged in the same paragraph, if not in the same sentence.[23]
Names of the God of Heaven
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Besides Shàngdì and Tàidì, other names include Yudi ("Jade Deity") and Taiyi ("Great Oneness") who, in mythical imagery, holds the ladle of the Big Dipper (Great Chariot), providing the movement of life to the world.[24] As the hub of the skies, the north celestial pole constellations are known, among various names, as Tiānmén (天門, "Gate of Heaven")[25] and Tiānshū (天樞, "Pivot of Heaven").[26]
Other names of the God of Heaven are attested in the vast Chinese religio-philosophical literary tradition:
Tiāndì (天帝), "Deity of Heaven" or "Emperor of Heaven":[27] "On Rectification" (Zheng lun) of the Xunzi uses this term to refer to the active God of Heaven setting creation in motion.[21]
Tianzhu (天主), the "Lord of Heaven": In "The Document of Offering Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth on the Mountain Tai" (Fengshan shu) of the Records of the Grand Historian, it is used as the title of the first God from whom all the other gods derive.[28]
Tiānhuáng (天皇), the "August Personage of Heaven": In the "Poem of Fathoming Profundity" (Si'xuan fu), transcribed in "The History of the Later Han Dynasty" (Hou Han shu), Zhang Heng ornately writes: «I ask the superintendent of the Heavenly Gate to open the door and let me visit the King of Heaven at the Jade Palace».[27]
Tianwang (天王), the "King of Heaven" or "Monarch of Heaven".
Tiāngōng (天公), the "Duke of Heaven" or "General of Heaven".[29]
Tiānjūn (天君), the "Prince of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven".[29]
Tiānzūn (天尊), the "Heavenly Venerable", also a title for high gods in Taoist theologies.[27]
Tiānshén (天神), the "God of Heaven", interpreted in the Shuowen Jiezi as "the being that gives birth to all things".[21]
Shénhuáng (神皇), "God the August", attested in Taihong ("The Origin of Vital Breath").[21]
Lǎotiānyé (老天爺), the "Olden Heavenly Father".[27]
Tian is both transcendent and immanent, manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny, and nature of things. In the Wujing yiyi (五經異義, "Different Meanings in the Five Classics"), Xu Shen explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:[28]
Huáng Tiān (皇天), "August Heaven" or "Imperial Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation.
Hào Tiān (昊天), "Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath (qi).
Mín Tiān (旻天), "Compassionate Heaven", for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-Heaven.
Shàng Tiān (上天), "Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-Heaven.
Cāng Tiān (蒼天), "Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep.
All these designations reflect a hierarchical, multiperspective experience of divinity.[18]
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In Taoism and Chinese folk religion, gods and xian[37] are often seen as embodiments of water.[38] Water gods and xian were often thought to ensure good grain harvests, mild weather and seas, and rivers with abundant water.[38] Some xian were thought to be humans who gained power by drinking "charmed water".[37]
Some gods were based on previously existing Taoist immortals, bodhisattvas, or historical figures.[39]
Stoneware figure of a Daoist (Taoist) deity. From China, Ming dynasty, 16th century CE. The British Museum
Cosmic gods
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Yudi (玉帝, "Jade Deity") or Yuhuang (玉皇, "Jade Emperor" or "Jade King"), is the popular human-like representation of the God of Heaven.[40] Jade traditionally represents purity, so it is a metaphor for the unfathomable source of creation.
Doumu (斗母, "Mother of the Great Chariot"), often entitled with the honorific Tianhou (天后, "Queen of Heaven") is the heavenly goddess portrayed as the mother of the Big Dipper (Great Chariot), whose seven stars, in addition to two invisible ones, are conceived as her sons, the Jiuhuangshen (九皇神, "Nine God-Kings"), themselves regarded as the ninefold manifestation of Jiuhuangdadi (九皇大帝, "Great Deity of the Nine Kings") or Doufu (斗父, "Father of the Great Chariot"), another name of the God of Heaven. She is, therefore, both wife and mother of the God of Heaven.[41][42]
Pangu (盤古), a macranthropic metaphor of the cosmos. He separated yin and yang, creating the earth (murky yin) and the sky (clear yang). All things were made from his body after he died.[43]
Xiwangmu (西王母, "Queen Mother of the West"),[ii] identified with the Kunlun Mountain, shamanic inspiration, death, and immortality.[45][46] She is the dark, chthonic goddess, pure yin, at the same time terrifying and benign, both creation and destruction, associated with the tiger and weaving.[47] Her male counterpart is Dongwanggong (東王公, "King Duke of the East";[iii] also called Mugong, 木公 "Duke of the Woods"),[48] who represents the yang principle.[47]
Hòuyì (后羿, "Yi the Archer"), was a man who sought for immortality, reaching Xiwangmu on her mountain, Kunlun.
Yanwang (閻王, "Purgatory King")[iv] the ruler of the underworld, assisted by the Heibai Wuchang (黑白無常, "Black and White Impermanence"), representing the alternation of yin and yang principles, alongside Ox-Head and Horse-Face, who escort spirits to his realm.
Yinyanggong (陰陽公, "Yinyang Duke"[iii]) or Yinyangsi (陰陽司, "Yinyang Controller"), the personification of the union of yin and yang.
Three Patrons and Five Deities
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Wufang Shangdi (五方上帝), the order of Heaven inscribing worlds as tán 壇, "altar", the Chinese concept equivalent to the Indian mandala. The supreme God conceptualised as the Yellow Deity, and Xuanyuan as its human form, is the heart of the universe and the other Four Deities are his emanations. The diagram is based on the Huainanzi.[50]
Statue and ceremonial complex of the Yellow and Red Gods in Zhengzhou, Henan.
Temple of the Three Officials of Heaven in Chiling, Zhangpu, Fujian.
Temple of the Great Deity of the Eastern Peak at Mount Tai, Tai'an, Shandong.
Sānhuáng (三皇, "Three Patrons or Augusts") or Sāncái (三才, "Three Potencies"); they are the "vertical" manifestation of Heaven, spatially corresponding to the Sānjiè (三界, "Three Realms"), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being:
Fuxi (伏羲) , the patron of heaven (天皇, Tiānhuáng), also called Bāguàzǔshī (八卦祖師, "Venerable Inventor of the Bagua") by the Taoists, is a divine man reputed to have taught to humanity writing, fishing, and hunting.
Nüwa (女媧), the patroness of earth (地皇, Dehuáng), is a goddess attributed for the creation of mankind and mending the order of the world when it was broken.
Shennong (神農), "Peasant God", the patron of humanity (人皇, Rénhuáng), identified as Yandi (炎帝, "Flame Deity" or "Fiery Deity"), a divine man said to have taught the techniques of farming, herbal medicine, and marketing. He is often represented as a human with horns and other features of an ox.[51]
Wǔdì (五帝, "Five Deities"),[52] also Wǔfāng Shàngdì (五方上帝, "Five Manifestations of the Highest Deity"), Wǔfāng Tiānshén (五方天神, "Five Manifestations of the Heavenly God"), Wǔfāngdì (五方帝, "Five Forms Deity"), Wǔtiāndì (五天帝, "Five Heavenly Deities"), Wǔlǎojūn (五老君, "Five Ancient Lords"), Wǔdàoshén (五道神, "Five Ways God[s]"); they are the five main "horizontal" manifestations of Heaven, and along with the Three Potencies, they have a celestial, a terrestrial, and a chthonic form. They correspond to the five phases of creation, the five constellations rotating around the celestial pole and five planets, the five sacred mountains and five directions of space (their terrestrial form), and the five Dragon Gods which represent their mounts, that is to say, the material forces they preside over (their chthonic form).[53][54]
Huangdi (黃帝, "Yellow Emperor" or "Yellow Deity"); or Huángshén (黃神, "Yellow God"), also known as Xuānyuán Huángdì (軒轅黃帝, "Yellow Deity of the Chariot Shaft"), is the Zhōngyuèdàdì (中岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Central Peak"): he represents the essence of earth and the Yellow Dragon,[51] and is associated with Saturn.[54] The character 黃 (huáng, "yellow"), by homophony and shared etymology with 皇 (huáng), also means "august", "creator", and "radiant", identifying the Yellow Emperor with Shangdi ("Highest Deity").[55] Huangdi represents the heart of creation, the axis mundi (Kunlun) that is the manifestation of the divine order in physical reality, opening the way to immortality.[51] As the deity of the centre, intersecting the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, in the Shizi he is described as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (黃帝四面, Huángdì Sìmiàn).[56] As a human, he is said to have been the fruit of a virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper (Great Chariot). She delivered her son after twenty-four months on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan (Chariot Shaft), after which he was named.[57] He is reputed to be the founder of the Huaxia civilisation, and the Han Chinese identify themselves as the descendants of Yandi and Huangdi.
Cangdi (蒼帝, "Green Deity); or Qīngdì (青帝, "Blue Deity" or "Bluegreen Deity", the Dōngdì (東帝, "East Deity") or Dōngyuèdàdì (東岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Eastern Peak"): he is Tàihào (太昊), associated with the essence of wood and with Jupiter, and is the god of fertility and spring. The Bluegreen Dragon is both his animal form and constellation.[51][54] His female consort is the goddess of fertility, Bixia.
Heidi (黑帝, "Black Deity), the Běidì (北帝, "North Deity") or Běiyuèdàdì (北岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Northern Peak"): he is Zhuanxu (顓頊), today frequently worshiped as Xuanwu (玄武, "Dark Warrior") or Zhēnwǔ (真武), and is associated with the essence of water and winter, and with Mercury. His animal form is the Black Dragon and his stellar animal is the tortoise-snake.[51][54]
Chidi (赤帝, "Red Deity"), the Nándì (帝, "South Deity") or Nányuèdàdì (南岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Southern Peak"): he is Shennong (the "Divine Farmer"), the Yandi ("Fiery Deity"), associated with the essence of fire and summer, and with Mars. His animal form is the Red Dragon and his stellar animal is the phoenix. He is the god of agriculture, animal husbandry, medicinal plants, and market.[51][54]
Baidi (白帝, "White Deity"), the Xīdì (西帝, "West Deity") or Xīyuèdàdì (西岳大帝, "Great Deity of the Western Peak"): he is Shaohao (少昊), and is the god of the essence of metal and autumn, associated with Venus. His animal form is the White Dragon and his stellar animal is the tiger.[54]
The Three Great Emperor-Officials: the Tiānguān (天官, "Official of Heaven"), the Dìguān (地官, "Official of Earth"), and the Shuǐguān (水官, "Official of Water").[9][58]
In mythology, Huangdi and Yandi fought a battle against each other, and Huang finally defeated Yan with the help of the Dragon (the controller of water, who is Huangdi himself).[59] This myth symbolizes the equipoise of yin and yang, here the fire of knowledge (reason and craft) and earthly stability.[59]
Yan (炎) is flame, scorching fire, or an excess of it (Graphically, it is a double 火 (huo, "fire").[59] As an excess of fire brings destruction to the earth, it has to be controlled by a ruling principle. Nothing is good in itself, without limits; good outcomes depend on the proportion in the composition of things and their interactions, never on extremes in absolute terms.[59] Huangdi and Yandi are complementary opposites, necessary for the existence of one another, and they are powers that exist together within the human being.
Gods of celestial and terrestrial phenomena
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Temple of the Wind God in Tainan.
Longshen (龍神, "Dragon Gods") or Lóngwáng, (龍王, "Dragon Kings"), also Sìhǎi Lóngwáng (四海龍王, "Dragon Kings of the Four Seas"), are gods of watery sources, usually reduced to four, patrons of the Four Seas (四海, sihai) and the four cardinal directions. They are the White Dragon (白龍, Báilóng), the Black Dragon (玄龍, Xuánlóng), the Red Dragon (朱龍, Zhūlóng), and the Bluegreen Dragon (青龍, Qīnglóng). Corresponding with the Five Deities as the chthonic forces that they sublimate (the Dragon Gods are often represented as the "mount" of the Five Deities), they inscribe the land of China into an ideal sacred squared boundary. The fifth dragon, the Yellow Dragon (黃龍, Huánglóng), is the dragon of the centre, representing the Yellow God.
In Taiyuan, Liu Heng, the fifth emperor of the Western Han dynasty, is worshiped as the Dragon King. This is because Liu Heng once served as the Prince of Dai of the area and was welcomed by the local people. Every year, local villagers hold a sacrifice to him on the Longtaitou Festival.[60][61]
Báoshén (雹神, "Hail God")[iv]
Bālà (八蜡), the Chóngshén (蟲神, "Insect God") or Chóngwáng (蟲王, "Insect King"): the gods of insects.[iv]
Dìzhǔshén (地主神, "Landlord God").
Dòushén (痘神, "Smallpox God").[iv]
Fei Lian (飛帘), the Fēngshén (風神, "Wind God").[iv]
Hǎishén (海神, "Sea God"); also Hǎiyé (海爷, "Sea Lord").
Hebo (河伯, "River Lord") or Héshén (河神, "River God"): any watercourse god, among which, one of the most revered is the god of the Yellow River.[iv]
Gǔshén (穀神, "Valley God"): in the Daodejing, a name used to refer to the Way[62]
Huǒshén (火神, "Fire God"), often personified as Zhurong (祝融)[iv]
Húshén (湖神, "Lake God")
Shèshén (社神, "Soil God")
Jìshén (稷神, "Grain God")
Jīnshén (金神, "Gold God"), often identified as the Qiūshén (秋神, "Autumn God") and personified as Rùshōu (蓐收)
Jǐngshén (井神, "Waterspring God").[62]
Leishen (雷神, "Thunder God") or Léigōng (雷公, "Thunder Duke");[iii] his consort is Diànmǔ (電母, "Lightning Mother").
Mùshén (木神, "Woodland God"), usually the same as the Chūnshén (春神, "Spring God"), and as Jùmáng (句芒).
Shānshén (山神, "Mountain God")
Shuǐshén (水神, "Water God")
Tudishen (土地神, "God of the Local Land"), also Tǔshén (土神, "Earth God"), or Tudigong (土地公, "Duke of the Local Land"):[iii] the tutelary deity of any locality. Their Overlord is Houtu (后土, "Queen of the Earth").[ii]
Wen Shen (瘟神, "Plague God")[iv]
Xiangshuishen (湘水神, "Xiang Waters' Goddesses"): the patrons of the Xiang River.
Xuěshén (雪神, "Snow God")
Yǔshén (雨神, "Rain God")[iv]
Xihe (羲和), the Tàiyángshén (太陽神, "Great Sun Goddess") or Shírìzhīmǔ (十日之母, "Mother of the Ten Suns").[ii]
Yuèshén (月神, "Moon Goddesses"): Chángxī (常羲) or Shí'èryuèzhīmǔ (十二月之母, "Mother of the Twelve Moons"), and Chang'e (嫦娥).
Gods of human virtues and crafts
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Guan Yu (middle), Guan Ping (his right) and Zhou Cang (his left) at a Chinese folk religious temple in Osaka, Japan. Guandi is one of the most revered gods among Han Chinese.
The Waterside Dame and her two attendants, Lin Jiuniang and Li Sanniang, at the Temple of Heavenly Harmony of the Lushan school of Red Taoism in Luodong, Yilan, Taiwan.
Temple of the Dragon Mother in Deqing, Guangdong.
Temple of the Ancestral Mother the Queen of Heaven in Qingdao, Shandong.
Some Taoist gods were thought to affect human morality and the consequences of it in certain traditions. Some Taoists beseeched gods, multiple gods, and/or pantheons to aid them in life and/or abolish their sins.[63]
The six Jade Maidens, as depicted in The Ordination of Empress Zhang (detail)
Civil and military (wen and wu) deities:
Wendi (文帝, "Culture Deity"), also Wénchāngdì (文昌帝, "Deity who Makes Culture Thrive") or Wénchāngwáng (文昌王, "King who Makes Culture Thrive"): in southern provinces, this deity takes the identity of various historical persons, while in the north, he is more frequently identified as being the same as Confucius (孔夫子, Kǒngfūzǐ)
Kuixing (魁星, "Chief Star"): another god of culture and literature, but specifically, examination, is a personification of the man who awakens to the order of the Great Chariot.
Wǔdì (武帝, "Military Deity"): Guandì (關帝, "Divus Guan"), also called Guāngōng (關公, "Duke Guan"),[iii] and popularly Guānyǔ (關羽).[ii]
Another class is the Zhànshén (戰神, "Fight God"), who may be personified by Chiyou (蚩尤) or Xingtian (刑天), who was decapitated for fighting against Tian.
Baoshengdadi (保生大帝, "Great Deity who Protects Life").[v]
Baxian (八仙, "Eight Immortals").
Canshen (蠶神, "Silkworm God"), who may be:
Cánmǔ (蠶母, "Silkworm Mother"), also called Cángū (蠶姑, "Silkworm Maiden"), who is identified as Leizu (嫘祖), the wife of the Yellow Emperor: the invention of sericulture is attributed primarily to her.
Qīngyīshén (青衣神, "Bluegreen-Clad God"): his name as a human was Cáncóng (蠶叢, "Silkworm Twig"), and he is the first ruler and ancestor of the Shu state and promoter of sericulture among his people.
Caishen (財神, "Wealth God").[ii]
Yánshén (鹽神, "Salt God"): a pantheon of salt deities that bring wealth to their adherents, including ChiYou for his blood turned into a pool of salt after he died in some tellings, Sushashi for being the first to extract salt from seawater in mythology, Guan Zhong for he gave his state an official monopoly on salt operations, and animals of all types, such as crows and deer, which were credited with leading humans to salt and thus granted divinity. Many of the salt gods can be worshipped as wealth gods.[64]
Cangjie (倉頡), the four-eyed inventor of the Chinese characters.
Cāngshén (倉神, "Granary God").
Chuānzhǔ (川主, "Lord of Sichuan")
Chenghuangshen (城隍神, "Moat and Walls God", or "Boundary God"): the god of the sacred boundaries of a human agglomeration, he is often personified by founding fathers or noble personalities from each city or town.[ii]
Chen Jinggu (陳靖姑, "Old Quiet Lady"), also called Línshuǐ Fūrén (臨水夫人, "Waterside Dame").[v]
Hùshén (戶神, "Gate God").
Chēshén (車神, "Vehicle God")[iv]
Erlangshen (二郎神, "Twice Young God"), the god of engineering.
Guǎngzé Zūnwáng (廣澤尊王, "Honorific King of Great Compassion").[v]
Guanyin (觀音, "She who Hears the Cries of the World"), the goddess of mercy.[ii]
Huang Daxian (黃大仙, "Great Immortal Huang").
Jigong (濟公, "Help Lord").
Jiǔshén (酒神, "Wine God"), personified as Yidi (儀狄).[iv]
Jiutian Xuannü (九天玄女, "Mysterious Lady of the Nine Heavens"), a disciple of Xiwangmu and initiator of Huangdi.
Longmu (龍母, "Dragon Mother").
Lu Ban (魯班), the god of carpentry.
Lùshén (路神, "Road God").[iv]
Xíngshén (行神, "Walking God").
Mazu (媽祖, "Ancestral Mother"), often entitled the "Queen of Heaven".[vi]
Pànguān (判官, "Judging Official").
Píng'ānshén (平安神, "Peace God"), an embodiment of whom is considered to have been Mao Zedong.[66]
Qingshui Zushi (清水祖師, "Venerable Patriarch of the Clear Stream")[v]
Táoshén (陶神, "Pottery God")[iv]
Tuershen (兔兒神, "Leveret God"), the god of love among males.
Tuōtǎlǐ Tiānwáng (托塔李天王, "Pagoda-Bearing Heavenly King"), also known as Li Jing (李靖). He has three sons, the warlike protector deities Jinzha (金吒), Muzha (木吒), and Nezha (哪吒).
Wǔxiǎn (五顯, "Five Shining Ones"), possibly a popular form of the cosmological Five Deities.[v]
Xǐshén (喜神, "Joy God").
Yàoshén (藥神, "Medicine God") or frequently Yàowáng (藥王, "Medicine King").[iv]
Yuexia Laoren (月下老人, "Old Man Under the Moon"), the matchmaker who pairs lovers together.
Yùshén (獄神, "Jail-Purgatory God")[iv]
Zaoshen (灶神, "Hearth God"), the master of the household deities, including the "Bed God" (床神, Chuángshén), the "Gate Gods" (門神, Ménshén), and the "Toilet god" (廁神, Cèshén), often personified as Zigu.
Zhong Kui (鍾馗), the vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings.
Sanxing (三星, "Three Stars"), a cluster of three astral gods of well-being:
Fuxing (福星, "Prosperity Star"), god of happiness.
Luxing (祿星, "Firmness Star"), god of firmness and success in life and examinations.
Shouxing (壽星, "Longevity Star"), who stands for a healthy and long life.
Gods of animal and vegetal life
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Huāshén (花神, "Flower Goddess").
Huxian (狐神, "Fox God[dess]") or Húxiān (狐仙, "Fox Immortal"), also called Húxiān Niángniáng (狐仙娘娘, "Fox Immortal Lady").[vii]
Two other great fox deities, peculiar to northeast China, are the "Great Lord of the Three Foxes" (胡三太爷, Húsān Tàiyé) and the "Great Lady of the Three Foxes" (胡三太奶, Húsān Tàinǎi), representing the yin and yang.[vii]
Mǎshén (馬神, "Horse God") or Mǎwáng (马王, "Horse King").[iv]
Niúshén (牛神, "Cattle God" or "Ox God"), also called Niúwáng (牛王, "Cattle King").[iv]
Lángshén (狼神, "Wolf God").[iv]
Shùshén (樹神, "Tree God[s]").
Wǔgǔshén (五谷神, "Five Cereals God"),[iv] another name for Shennong.
Yuánshén (猿神, "Monkey God") or Yuánwáng (猿王, "Monkey King"), who is identified as Sun Wukong (孙悟空).[viii]
Zhīmáshén (芝蔴神, "Sesame God")[iv]
Bixia mother goddess worship
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"Bixia" redirects here. For the regal address, see Emperor of China.
Taiwanese wooden icon of the Queen of the Earth (Houtu).
The worship of mother goddesses for the cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as Bixia Yuanjun (碧霞元君, "Lady of the Blue Dawn"), also known as the Tiānxiān Niángniáng (天仙娘娘, "Heavenly Immortal Lady") or Tàishān Niángniáng (泰山娘娘, "Lady of Mount Tai"),[ix] or also Jiǔtiān Shèngmǔ (九天聖母,[68] "Holy Mother of the Nine Skies"[x])[69]: 149–150 or Houtu, the goddess of the earth.[70]
Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess Xiwangmu.[71] The general Chinese term for "goddess" is nǚshén (女神), and goddesses may receive many qualifying titles, including mǔ (母, "mother"), lǎomǔ (老母, "old mother"), shèngmǔ (聖母, "holy mother"), niángniáng (娘娘, "lady"), nǎinai (奶奶, "granny").
The additional eight main goddesses of fertility, reproduction, and growth are:[69]: 149–150, 191, note 18
Bānzhěn Niángniáng (瘢疹娘娘), the goddess who protects children from illness.
Cuīshēng Niángniáng (催生娘娘), the goddess who gives swift childbirth and protects midwives.
Nǎimǔ Niángniáng (奶母娘娘), the goddess who presides over maternal milk and protects nursing.
Péigū Niángniáng (培姑娘娘), the goddess who cultivates children.
Péiyǎng Niángniáng (培養娘娘), the goddess who protects the upbringing of children.
Songzi Niangniang (送子娘娘) or Zǐsūn Niángniáng (子孫娘娘), the goddess who presides over offspring.
Yǎnguāng Niángniáng (眼光娘娘), the goddess who protects eyesight.
Yǐnméng Niángniáng (引蒙娘娘), the goddess who guides young children.
Altars of goddess worship are usually arranged with Bixia at the center and two goddesses at her sides, most frequently the "Lady of Eyesight" and the "Lady of Offspring".[69]: 149–150, 191, note 18 A different figure, but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the "Goddess of the Seven Stars" (七星娘娘, Qīxīng Niángniáng).[xi]
There is also the cluster of the "Holy Mothers of the Three Skies" (三霄聖母, Sānxiāo Shèngmǔ; or 三霄娘娘, Sānxiāo Niángniáng, "Ladies of the Three Stars"), composed of Yunxiao Guniang, Qiongxiao Guniang, and Bixiao Guniang.[72] The cult of Chenjinggu, present in southeast China, is identified by some scholars as an emanation of the northern cult of Bixia.[73]
Other goddesses worshipped in China include Cánmǔ (蠶母, "Silkworm Mother") or Cángū (蠶姑, "Silkworm Maiden"),[70] identified with Leizu (嫘祖, the wife of the Yellow Emperor), Magu (麻姑, "Hemp Maiden"), Saoqing Niang (掃清娘, "Goddess who Sweeps Clean"),[xii][74] Sānzhōu Niángniáng (三洲娘娘, "Goddess of the Three Isles"),[74] and Wusheng Laomu. The mother goddess is central in the theology of many folk religious sects.[70]
Gods of northeast China
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See also: Wudaxian and Northeast China folk religion
Northeast China has clusters of deities which are peculiar to the area, deriving from the Manchu and broader Tungusic substratum of the local population. Animal deities related to shamanic practices are characteristic of the area and reflect wider Chinese cosmology. Besides the aforementioned Fox Gods (狐仙, Húxiān), they include:[citation needed]
Huángxiān (黃仙, "Yellow Immortal", the Weasel God.
Shéxiān (蛇仙, "Snake Immortal"), also variously called Liǔxiān (柳仙, "Immortal Liu"), or Chángxiān (常仙, "Viper Immortal") or also Mǎngxiān (蟒仙, "Python or Boa Immortal").
Báixiān (白仙, "White Immortal"), the Hedgehog God.
Hēixiān (黑仙, "Black Immortal"), who may be the Wūyāxiān (烏鴉仙, "Crow Immortal"), or the Huīxiān (灰仙, "Rat Immortal"), with the latter considered a misinterpretation of the former.
Gods of Indian origin
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Temple of the Four-Faced God in Changhua, Taiwan.
Gods who have been adopted into Chinese religion but who have their origins in the Indian subcontinent or Hinduism:
Guanyin (觀音, "She who Hears the Cries of the World"), a Chinese goddess of mercy modeled after the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
Sìmiànshén (四面神, "Four-Faced God"), but also a metaphor for "Ubiquitous God": The recent cult has its origin in the Thai transmission of the Hindu god Brahma, but it is also an epithet of the indigenous Chinese god Huangdi who, as the deity of the centre of the cosmos, is described in the Shizi as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (黃帝四面, Huángdì Sìmiàn).[56]
Xiàngtóushén (象頭神, "Elephant-Head God"), is the Indian god Ganesha.[75]
Gods of North China and Mongolia
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Genghis Khan (成吉思汗, Chéngjísīhán), worshipped by Mongols and Chinese under a variety of divinity titles, including Shèngwǔ Huángdì (聖武皇帝, "Holy Military Sovereign Deity"), Fǎtiān Qǐyùn (法天啓運, "Starter of the Transmission of the Law of Heaven"), and Tàizǔ (太祖, "Great Ancestor") of the Yuan and the Mongols.
Gods of folk and Local
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Heng and Ha (哼哈二將), two generals of the Shang dynasty, guards of Buddhist temples in East Asia.[76]
Menshen (門神, "Door Gods"), divine guardians of doors and gates.
Shentu and Yulü (鬱壘), a pair of deities who punished evil spirits.
Luoshen (洛神), the goddess of the Luo River.
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Húxiān (simplified Chinese: 胡仙; traditional Chinese: 狐仙; trans. "Fox Immortal"), also called Húshén (胡神; 狐神; "Fox God") or Húwáng (胡王; 狐王; "Fox Ruler")[1] is a deity in Chinese religion whose cult is present in provinces of north China (from Henan and Shandong northwards), but especially in northeast China where it can be said to be the most popular deity.[2]
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Northeast China was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including the Koreans, Manchus (or Jurchens), Ulchs, Hezhen (also known as the Goldi and Nanai), Sushen, Xianbei, and Mohe.
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The Northern dynasties, all of which were either led or heavily influenced by the Xianbei, opposed and promoted sinicization at one point or another but trended towards the latter and had merged with the general Chinese population by the Tang dynasty.[19][20][21][22][23] The Northern Wei also arranged for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the Tuoba imperial clan in the 480s.[24] More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.[25]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu
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The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multilingual, multi-ethnic confederation.[23][24][25][26]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuoba
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyacinth_(Bichurin)
https://www.academia.edu/114820602/Inve ... Understand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogrou ... urasia.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Wei
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Wei
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang
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The frequency of R1a1a is comparatively low among some Turkic-speaking groups like Yakuts, yet levels are higher (19 to 28%) in certain Turkic or Mongolic-speaking groups of Northwestern China, such as the Bonan, Dongxiang, Salar, and Uyghurs.[16][116][117]
A Chinese paper published in 2018 found R1a-Z94 in 38.5% (15/39) of a sample of Keriyalik Uyghurs from Darya Boyi / Darya Boye Village, Yutian County, Xinjiang (于田县达里雅布依乡), R1a-Z93 in 28.9% (22/76) of a sample of Dolan Uyghurs from Horiqol township, Awat County, Xinjiang (阿瓦提县乌鲁却勒镇), and R1a-Z93 in 6.3% (4/64) of a sample of Loplik Uyghurs from Karquga / Qarchugha Village, Yuli County, Xinjiang (尉犁县喀尔曲尕乡). R1a(xZ93) was observed only in one of 76 Dolan Uyghurs.[118] Note that Darya Boyi Village is located in a remote oasis formed by the Keriya River in the Taklamakan Desert. A 2011 Y-DNA study found Y-dna R1a1 in 10% of a sample of southern Hui people from Yunnan, 1.6% of a sample of Tibetan people from Tibet (Tibet Autonomous Region), 1.6% of a sample of Xibe people from Xinjiang, 3.2% of a sample of northern Hui from Ningxia, 9.4% of a sample of Hazak (Kazakhs) from Xinjiang, and rates of 24.0%, 22.2%, 35.2%, 29.2% in 4 different samples of Uyghurs from Xinjiang, 9.1% in a sample of Mongols from Inner Mongolia. A different subclade of R1 was also found in 1.5% of a sample of northern Hui from Ningxia.[119] in the same study there were no cases of R1a detected at all in 6 samples of Han Chinese in Yunnan, 1 sample of Han in Guangxi, 5 samples of Han in Guizhou, 2 samples of Han in Guangdong, 2 samples of Han in Fujian, 2 samples of Han in Zhejiang, 1 sample of Han in Shanghai, 1 samples of Han in Jiangxi, 2 samples of Han in Hunan, 1 sample of Han in Hubei, 2 samples of Han in Sichuan, 1 sample of Han in Chongqing, 3 samples of Han in Shandong, 5 samples of Han in Gansu, 3 samples of Han in Jilin and 2 samples of Han in Heilongjiang.[120] 40% of Salars, 45.2% of Tajiks of Xinjiang, 54.3% of Dongxiang, 60.6% of Tatars and 68.9% of Kyrgyz in Xinjiang in northwestern China tested in one sample had R1a1-M17. Bao'an (Bonan) had the most haplogroup diversity of 0.8946±0.0305 while the other ethnic minorities in northwestern China had a high haplogroup diversity like Central Asians, of 0.7602±0.0546.[121]
In Eastern Siberia, R1a1a is found among certain indigenous ethnic groups including Kamchatkans and Chukotkans, and peaking in Itel'man at 22%.[122]
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The Shimar (Shammar) Bedouin tribe in Kuwait show the highest frequency in the Middle East at 43%.[124][125][126]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shammar
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Further to the north of these Western Asian regions on the other hand, R1a1a levels start to increase in the Caucasus, once again in an uneven way. Several populations studied have shown no sign of R1a1a, while highest levels so far discovered in the region appears to belong to speakers of the Karachay-Balkar language among whom about one quarter of men tested so far are in haplogroup R1a1a.[3]
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Russian filmmaker Andrei Proshkin used Karachay–Balkar for The Horde, believing that it might be the closest language to the original Kipchak language which was spoken during the Golden Horde.[12]
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Most of the dialogue in The Horde is in the Karachay-Balkar language (with Russian overdub in the theatrical release). The filmmakers considered Karachay-Balkar to be the living language most closely resembling Kipchak spoken by the 14th century Golden Horde.[2] Nevertheless, none of the actors of Turkic extraction are native speakers of the language; Dakayarov, Lvov, and Yegorov are Yakuts, whereas Hairullina is Volga Tatar.
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In a 2015 paper, Gerhard Jäger of the University of Tübingen reported "intriguing" and "controversial" findings regarding Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Indo-European and other language families. Using a variant of mass lexical comparison, augmented by computational linguistic techniques, such as large-scale statistical analysis, Jäger investigated "deep genetic relations" between many different language families. To increase the chances that genuine genetic relationships were detected, he eliminated from consideration "rogue taxa," languages and families that had ambiguous positions because of random similarities or recent language contact.
Jäger found evidence that Chukotko-Kamchatkan and the Indo-European languages had statistically-significant similarities with each other, suggesting that they may have once formed part of a clade. On the whole, similarities between the two families were greater than either shared with any other language family. That was the case even when Jäger factored in similarities in phonology that were likely random coincidences (such as a "surprisingly high number" of resemblances in vocabulary between Chukotko-Kamchatkan and the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages).
According to Jäger, when these "rogue taxa" were removed, the confidence value of a notional "Indo-European/Chukotko-Kamchatkan clade" fell only slightly, from 0.969 to a still statistically-significant 0.964.[7]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itelmen_language
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There are two points of view about where Itelmen belongs genetically. According to the first theory, Itelmen and Chukotkan descend from a common proto-language; the sharp differences of Itelmen, noticed at all levels, are explained by the intense influence of other languages. It is suggested that Itelmen absorbed a different non-Chukotko-Kamchatkan language.[5] According to the second theory, Itelmen is not related to other Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages; common elements are due to contact.[6]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chachy
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The Itelmens subscribed to a polytheistic religion. The creative god was referred to as Kutka or Kutga. Though he is regarded as the creator of all things, Steller describes a complete lack of veneration for him. The Itelmens attribute the problems and difficulties of life to his stupidity, and are quick to scold or curse him.[5] They believed Kutka to be married to an intelligent woman named Chachy, who was said to have kept him from much foolishness and to have corrected him constantly. Kutka was believed to have lived on the greatest rivers of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and is said to have left a son and daughter for each river, which is used to explain the great variety of dialects present on the peninsula. The Itelmens also worshiped several spirits, Mitgh, who dwelled in the ocean and lived in the form of a fish. They believed in forest sprites, who were called ushakhtchu, said to resemble people. The mountain gods were called gamuli or little souls, who resided in the high mountains, especially volcanoes. The clouds were believed to be inhabited by the god billukai, who was responsible for thunder, lightning and storms. They postulated a devil, who was called Kamma, who was said to live in a tree outside Nizhnoi village, which was annually shot up with arrows.[4]
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The Itelmens he found there had captured a Japanese merchant's clerk named Dembei, who had been part of an expedition that was shipwrecked and overtaken by Itelmens upon arrival at the Kamchatka River. Atlasov, who initially assumed the prisoner to be a Hindu from India, resulting from confusion over the word "Hondo" or Tokyo, had him sent to Moscow where Peter the Great had him establish a Japanese-language school.[6]
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https://i.pinimg.com/736x/16/65/de/1665 ... eabd4a.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_Irish
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Transcribed Ogham inscriptions, which lack a letter for /p/, show Primitive Irish to be similar in morphology and inflections to Gaulish, Latin, Classical Greek and Sanskrit. Many of the characteristics of modern (and medieval) Irish, such as initial mutations, distinct "broad" and "slender" consonants and consonant clusters, are not yet apparent.
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Primitive Irish has a morphology similar to other Indo-European languages, however it did not display the most distinctive characteristics of other phases of the language including velarized ("broad") and palatalized ("slender") consonants (such consonant alterations may have existed, but they would have been allophonic), initial mutations, some loss of inflectional endings, but not of case marking, and consonant clusters.[38] Old Irish does carry with it these distinctive features, as well as the loss of grammatical suffixes, the introduction of the letter p through loanwords and proper names,[39][40] the simplification of the inflectional system,[41] the alteration of some short vowels through vowel harmony,[42] and, most notably, vowel elisions which resulted in distinctive consonant clusters.[42][43]
This last phenomenon, especially marked in the genesis of Old Irish proper, began with an application of secondary stress to the third syllable of most words with four or more syllables, and also to the fifth syllable of words with six or more, in addition to the primary stress, which fell on the first syllable, as is typical of Celtic languages.[42][44] This caused apocope of (final) syllables, syncope of stressless (internal) syllables, and the shortening of all long vowels in non-initial syllables, around 500 AD and the middle of the 6th century, respectively.[42][45][46] This loss of vowels caused consonant clusters to develop.
As an example, a 5th-century king of Leinster, whose name is recorded in Old Irish king-lists and annals as Mac Caírthinn Uí Enechglaiss, is memorialised on an Ogham stone near where he died. This gives the late Primitive Irish version of his name (in the genitive case), as MAQI CAIRATINI AVI INEQAGLAS.[47] Similarly, the Corcu Duibne, a people of County Kerry known from Old Irish sources, are memorialised on a number of stones in their territory as DOVINIAS.[48] Old Irish filed, "poet (gen.)", appears in ogham as VELITAS.[49] In each case the development of Primitive to Old Irish shows the loss of unstressed syllables and certain consonant changes.
Gradually, the grammaticalization of consonant mutations introduced a new characteristic that Irish would eventually share with all other modern Celtic languages.[50] Old Irish phonetic conditions generated different allophonic mutations over time, and with the diachronic loss of the conditions which caused the mutations, those mutations became the only way to distinguish between different grammatical forms. Thus, the mutations became differentiated phonemes with their own morphosyntactic functions. For example, in the Primitive Irish phrase SINDHI MAQQI ("of the son", SINDHI being a form of the definite article), originally pronounced ˈsɪndiː ˈmakʷiː, the initial M would have lenited to /β̃/ due to the influence of the -I ending of the preceding word. The variation in the pronunciation of the word would not have caused a difference in meaning; it would be allophonic. In a later stage of the language, the Primitive Irish word SINDHI became Old Irish in, losing the final vowel which caused the lenition. However, in the Old Irish phrase in maicc ("of the son"), the m is still lenited, so the pronunciation would be /ɪn β̃ak/. The lenition was 'reinterpreted' as being caused by the fact that maicc follows the definite article in, a rule of morphosyntax (grammar) rather than phonology. What was originally a phonological feature of the language therefore became grammaticalized.[41][51]
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In the Primitive Irish language (c. 300 to 500s CE), the phrase sindhi maqqi meant "of the son". Over time, the word sindhi evolved into the Old Irish word in, losing the final vowel and changing its pronunciation and exact grammatical function.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu
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No descriptions of Lü Bu's physical appearance exist in historical records. It was noted that he specialized in archery and horse-riding, and possessed great physical strength. He was nicknamed "Flying General" (飛將軍) for his martial prowess.[Sanguozhi 1] He also owned a powerful steed known as the "Red Hare".[Sanguozhi 2][Houhanshu 1] The Cao Man Zhuan recorded that there was a saying at the time to describe Lü Bu and the Red Hare: "Among men, Lü Bu; Among steeds, Red Hare)".[Sanguozhi zhu 1]
Lü Bu is described as follows in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms:
[...] a lofty and dignified look, a majestic and awe-inspiring bearing, wielding a fangtian huaji, [...] hair pulled back and worn in a golden headdress, donning a flowery-patterned battle robe, encased in body armour decorated with images of the ni,[c] wearing a precious belt adorned with the image of a lion, [...][5]
Biography
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Service under Ding Yuan and defection to Dong Zhuo
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An illustration of Lü Bu killing Ding Yuan (呂布弒丁原) in the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace, Beijing.
Lü Bu was from Jiuyuan County (九原縣), Wuyuan Commandery, which is near present-day Baotou, Inner Mongolia. He was known for his martial valour in Bing Province. When Ding Yuan, the Inspector (刺史) of Bing Province, was appointed as a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉) by the Han central government and ordered to garrison at Henei Commandery, he recruited Lü Bu as a Registrar (主簿) and treated him kindly.
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