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Proto-Celtic religion
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Proto-Celtic religion refers to the belief systems attributed to the speakers of the Proto-Celtic language, and encompasses mythological themes, legendary narratives, folk traditions and cosmological concepts that can be reconstructed for early Celtic culture. Proto-Celtic is generally dated to the Late Bronze Age (c. 1200–900 BC), and any reconstruction of Proto-Celtic religion therefore predates the historically attested religions of the Ancient Celts.
Through the comparative method, Celtic philologists and historical linguists have proposed reconstructions of deities, mythic figures, ritual concepts, and place-names, with varying degrees of scholarly confidence (reconstructed forms are conventionally marked with an asterisk). These reconstructions draw primarily on linguistic evidence and comparative analysis, and are supplemented by later literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources. Modern scholarship therefore stresses methodological restraint, treating Proto-Celtic religion as a constellation of related traditions rather than a fully reconstructible, homogeneous belief system.
Reconstruction framework
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Chronology
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See also: Proto-Celtic language, Urnfield culture, and Hallstatt culture
According to linguist John T. Koch, the period c. 1200–900 BC is appropriate for the existence of a unified, and possibly geographically expansive, Proto-Celtic language.[1] The Proto-Celtic homeland is generally associated in scholarship with the Urnfield culture (c. 1300–700 BC) and the early Hallstatt Iron Age (c. 800–750 BC) in Central Europe.[2]
The period around 900 BC is commonly identified with the breakup of Proto-Celtic into distinct branches (Hispano-Celtic versus Gallo-Brittonic and Goidelic, or Continental versus Insular Celtic).[1]
Sources and methodology
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See also: Ancient Celtic religion
The beliefs of the Proto-Celtic speakers cannot be reconstructed as a coherent or unified system, as no direct descriptions or indigenous religious writings survive from the Proto-Celtic period.[3] Reconstruction instead relies on a combination of indirect sources from later periods, including Classical accounts by Greek and Roman authors (such as Caesar, Strabo, and Lucan), ancient inscriptions (notably theonyms and dedicatory formulas), early medieval Irish and Welsh literature, archaeological evidence, and comparative Indo-European linguistics. These sources differ widely in date, genre, and cultural context, and many are shaped by external perspectives or later Christian reinterpretation, providing fragmentary insights into inherited beliefs and practices rather than a systematic theology.[3][4] Several motifs traditionally described as "Celtic" are also attested in other European traditions, particularly Germanic,[5] suggesting that some elements may reflect shared Indo-European traditions rather than uniquely Celtic religious concepts.[6]
Aspects of Proto-Celtic religion are reconstructed by identifying recurrent patterns across regions and periods. Where semantic continuity can be reasonably established, this also involves comparing cognate religious terms preserved in different Celtic languages. Some elements are considered among the more securely reconstructed aspects of Proto-Celtic paganism, particularly the sacral role of poets (*bardos and *kwrityos), druids (*druwides), and seers (*wātis and *weletos), as well as the recurrence of certain shared divine names (notably *Lugus).[7] A number of shared concepts likewise appear to have been closely tied to the natural environment, including sacred groves (*nemetom), mountains, lakes, and springs.[8] Despite these common elements, claims of pan-Celtic uniformity are therefore treated with caution in Celtic scholarship, which instead points to a "tangible relationship based upon common inheritance" rather than a fully unified religious system.[7]
Cognate terms
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Deities
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Proto-Celtic reconstruction Ancient Goidelic Brittonic Etymology Notes
*Belenos[9] Gaul. Belenus[10]
–
W Belyn[10] Traditionally derived from PIE *bʰelH- ('white, shining'), although this has come under criticism in recent scholarship.[9] The river name Bienne and the place name Bienne attest of a feminine form *Belenā.[9] See Belenos for further discussion.
*Bodwos[11][12]
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OIr. Bodb[11][12]
–
From Celtic–Germanic *bhodhwo- ('battle, fight').[13][12] Name of a war divinity. Also attested as a personal name in Gaulish Boduos. A term common to Celtic and Germanic, where a war-goddess is known as Badu-henna. The meaning 'crow', a bird symbolising the carnage in battle, is secondary in Celtic languages.[11][13] Middle Irish bodb must be understood as the 'bird on the battlefield and manifestation of the war-goddess'.[12] See Bodb Derg and Badb for further discussion.
*Brigantī ~ Brigantia[14] Gaul. *Brigantia[15] OIr. Brigit[14] OBritt. Brigantia[14] From PIE *bherǵh- ('be high, hill').[14] The stem Brigant- is attested in numerous river names (which are typically deified in ancient Celtic cultures), such as Briande [fr], Briance, Bregenzer, or Brent, and in toponyms such as Bragança (< *Brigantia).[15] See Brigid and Brigantia (goddess) for further discussion.
*Flitawī[16] Gaul. Litaui[16] OIr. Letha[17] OW Litau, OBret. Letau[16] From PIE *plth2wih2 ('the Broad One, i.e. Earth').[16] See Litavis and Dʰéǵʰōm (The Broad One) for further discussion.
*Gobann-[18] Gaul. Cobanno[19][18] OIr. Goibniu[18] MW Govannon[18] From PCelt. *goban- ('smith').[19] The Gaulish, Irish and Welsh forms diverge and are reconstructed as *Gobannos, as Gobeniū ~ *Gobanniō, and as Gobannonos, respectively.[19][18] See Gobannus, Goibniu and Gofannon for further discussion.
*Lugus[20] Gaul. Lugus, CIb. Luguei[20] OIr. Lug[20] MW Llew[20] Unclear etymology.[20] At the origin of the PCelt. compound *Lugu-deks ('serving Lugus'; cf. Gaul. Lugudeca, OIr. Lugaid).[20] See Lugus for further discussion.
*Makwonos Gaul. Maponos[21] OIr. *Maccan Oc (> Macán)[22] MW Mabon[21] An n-stem of PCelt. *makwo- ('son').[23] See Maponos for further discussion.
*Mātronā Gaul. Matrona[24]
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MW Modron[21] An n-stem of PCelt. *mātīr, gen. *mātros ('mother').[24] See Matronae for further discussion.
*Nowdont-[25] Nodonti, Nodenti[25][26] MIr. Nuadu[25][26] MW Nudd[25][26] Unclear etymology.[25] Nodenti is the dative singular of *Nodens.[25] See Nodens for further discussion.
*Ogmiyos[27] Gaul. Ogmios[27] MIr. Ogma[27]
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A yo-derivate of PCelt. *ogmos (perhaps 'path, orbit').[28] A mythological name
*Olo-(p)atīr[29]
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MIr. Ollathair[29]
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Identical to PGmc *Ala-fader (cf. Old Norse Alföðr).[29] An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of the Dagda. It can be compared with the Old Norse Alföðr, commonly used for Odin.[30]
*Tonaros > *Toranos[31][32] Gaul. Tanarus, Taranis[32]
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OBritt. Tanaro, Pict. Taran[32][33] Identical to the Proto-Germanic Thunder-god *Þun(a)raz (Thor). From PIE *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder').[31][32] See Taranis for further discussion.
*Windos[34][35] Gaul. Vindo(nnus), Galat. Uindieinos[36] OIr. Find (mac Cumhaill)[35] W Gwyn (ap Nudd)[35] 'The White One'. From PCelt. *windo- ('white').[34] The male names are considered to be cognates.[37][38][39][40] Vindonnus appears as an epithet attached to Greek god Apollo in continental Celtic inscriptions.[41][42][43] Compare Vindelici, Vindobona and Ogam Vendogni.[44] See Gwyn ap Nudd and Fionn mac Cumhaill for further discussion.
*Windo-sēbrā[45]
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OIr. Findabair[45] MW Gwenhwyfar[45] A compound of windo- ('white') attached to a feminine form of *sēbro- ('demon, spectre').[45] A mythological name. See Guinevere for further discussion.
Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Galat. = Galatian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish
Entities
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Proto-Celtic reconstruction Meaning Ancient Goidelic Brittonic Etymology Notes
*abankos[46] 'small (aquatic) creature'
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Mlr. abacc[46] MW afanc, MBret.
avank[46]
Probably from PCelt. *abon- ('river'), itself from PIE *h2ep- ('water').[46] Denoting small creatures, presumably from the waters (Mlr. abacc means 'dwarf', MW afanc 'dwarf, beaver', and MBret. avank 'dwarf, sea monster').[47][46] Also used as an equivalent to luchorpán (> leprechaun) in Irish.[47]
*branos[48] 'raven' Gaul. brano-[48] OIr. bran[48] MW bran, OBret. -bran, Co. bran[48] Unclear etymology. Perhaps related to Lith. varna 'raven' (< *worno-), or a loanword from an unknown source.[48] In Celtic traditions, the crow carries strong martial and supernatural associations, particularly with battlefields and fallen warriors. In Irish mythology, the war goddess Bodb frequently appears in crow form. The probable existence of a similar deity in Brittonic tradition may explain the feminisation of brân as a common noun in Welsh.[49] See also Brân the Blessed.
*dēwos[50] 'deity' Gaul. deuo-, CIb. teuio-[50] OIr. día[50] OW duiu, MBret. doe, OCo. duy[50] From PIE *deywos ('god, deity').[50] See Dyēus for further discussion.
*dwosyos[51] 'incubus, daemon' Gaul. dusios[52]
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Bret. Diz, Co. Dus[52] Cognate with Lith. dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul') and MHG getwās ('spirit, ghost').[52][51] Source of Romansch dischöl, Wallon dûhon, and Basque tusuri.[52][53]
*morā[54][51] 'female demon'
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MIr. mor-[54]
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From PIE *moreh2 ('nightly spirit, bad dream').[54] See Mare (folklore) and The Morrígan for further discussion.
*sēbro-[45] 'demon, spectre'
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OIr. síabar[45] MW -hwyfar[45] Unclear etymology.[45]
*skāhslo-[55][56] 'demon, supernatural being'
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OIr. scál[55] MW yscwal[55] Perhaps related to *skek- ('move, stir').[55] Cognate to Gothic skōhsl ('demon, evil spirit') < *skōhsla-.[56]
Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish
Locations
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Proto-Celtic reconstruction Meaning Ancient Goidelic Brittonic Etymology Notes
*albiyos[57][58] 'upper world' Gaul. albio-[57][58]
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OW elbid[57][58] From PIE *h2elbho- ('white').[58]
*ande-dubnos[59] 'other world, world of the dead' Gaul. antumnos[59]
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MW annw(f)n[59] From PCelt. ande- ('below') attached to *dubnos.[59] See also Gaul. anderon, genetive plural of *anderos, interpreted as meaning 'infernal', perhaps 'gods of the underworld', and cognate with Lat. īnferus and Skt ádhara-.[60] While Continental, Irish, and Brittonic sources broadly converge in depicting supernatural realms associated with the dead, the gods, and liminal access points, it remains unclear whether these form a distinctively Celtic complex or reflect motifs shared more widely across European traditions.[6] See Annwn for further discussion.
*bitus[58] 'world (of the living)' Gaul. bitu-[61] OIr. bith[61] OW bid, OBret. bit, OCo. bit[61] From PIE *gwiH-tu- ('life').[61] See Bituitus and Bith.
*dubnos[62] 'lower world' Gaul. dumno-[62] OIr. domun[62] MW dwfn, MBret. doun, Co. down[62] From PIE *dhewb(h)- ('deep').[62] See Dumnonii and Damnonii (tribes), Dumnonia (kingdom) and Fir Domnann.
Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish
Other
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Proto-Celtic reconstruction Meaning Ancient Goidelic Brittonic Etymology Notes
*adbertā[63] 'offering, victim'
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OIr. edbart[63] OW aperth[63] From PCelt. *ad- ('to') attached to *ber-tā < *ber-o- ('carry, bring, bear').[64] The OIr. word is the verbal noun of ad-opair < *ad-uss-ber-o ('sacrifices, offers').[63]
*adgaryos[65][66] 'summoner' (? of the deities) Gaul. adgarion[65] OIr. accrae[65]
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From PCelt. *ad- ('to') attached to *gar-yo- ('call, cry').[66] See also OIr. ad-gair ('summon, subpoena') < *ad-gar(i)et. The OIr. accrae ('complaint') <*ad-garion is also only used in legal contexts, although the original PCelt. meaning may have been 'to summon the deities [as witnesses]' (cf. OIr. deogaire 'seer' < *dewo-garios 'who summons the deity').[65]
*anamones[67][68] 'soul'
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OIr. anim[67] MBret. eneff, anaffoun, Co. enef[67][68] From PIE *h2enh1-mon- ('breath').[67] The Insular Celtic forms were influenced by the Lat. cognate anima.[67] See also anaon ('souls of the dead' in Breton mythology).[68]
*anation[69] 'soul' Gaul. anatia[69]
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MW enaid[69] From PIE *h2enh1-t-.[69] Gaulish anatia is interpreted as meaning 'the souls' (cf. Welsh enaid 'soul'). The Brythonic personal name Anate-mori is identical to MW eneitfawr ('[having] a great soul').[69] OIr. anál, OW anadyl, MBret. alazn, Co. anal ('breath') come from *anatlā.[69][70]
*awe-[71] 'poetic inspiration'
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OIr. aui[71] MW awen[71] Related to PCelt. *awelā ('breeze, wind'), itself from PIE *h2uh1-el- (id.).[71] The PCelt. reconstruction is difficult because the OIr. and MW forms do not agree.[71] The etymological sense is a 'breathing in' of a gift or genius bestowed by a supernatural source.[72] MoBret. awen ('inspiration') is a loanword from Welsh.[71]
*bardos[73][74] 'bard, poet' Gaul. bardo-[73][74] MIr. bard[73][74] MW bardd, MBret. barz, OCo. barth[73][74] From PIE *gʷrH-dʰh₁-o-s ('praise-maker').[73][74] See Bard for further discussion
*brihtu-[75] 'magical formula, incantation' Gaul. brixta[75] OIr. bricht[75] MW -brith, OBret. brith[75] Perhaps from PIE *bherg̍h- ('enlighten'), or related to PCelt. *berxto- ('bright, beautiful').[75] See Brixta for further discussion.
*dawnā[76] 'poem'
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MIr. dúan[76]
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From PIE *dh2p-no- ('offering').[76] See Aois-dàna, 'people of the arts; poet'.
*dedm-[77] 'rite, ceremony'
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OIr. deidmea[77] MW deuawt, OBret. domot[77] From PIE *dhedh(h1)m- ('custom').[77] The reconstruction of the vowel in PCelt. *dedmV- is difficult: OBret. domot points to *dedmāto- while OIr. deidmea points to *dedmi-.[77]
*druwid(e)s[62][78] 'priest, druid' Gaul. druides[62] OIr. druí[62] MW dryw[79] Presumably meaning 'oak-knower', from PIE *dru- ('oak') attached to *weyd- ('see, know').[62][79] The Brittonic forms MW derwydd and OBret. dorguid come from *do-are-wid- ('who sees beyond').[78] Old English drȳ ('magician') is a loanword from Celtic.[79] OIr. druí and MW dryw could also denote the wren, which, like the raven, was regarded as a prophetic bird.[79] See Druid for further discussion.
*ferissā[80] 'religion, belief'
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OIr. iress[80]
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Probably from PIE *peri-dh1-teh2.[80]
*frato-[81] 'good fortune, grace' Gaul. ratus[81] OIr. rath[81] OW rat, OBret. rad-, Co. ras[81] Probably related to PCel. far-na- ('bestow').[81]
*kwritus[82] 'magical transformation, shape' Gaul. prittus[82] OIr. cruth[82] MW pryd, MBret. pred, OCo. prit[82] From PIE *kwer- ('make, cause').[82] See Britain, Prydain and tribe Cruthin.
*kwrityos[83] 'poet' Gaul. pritios[83] OIr. Crithe[83] MW prydydd, OCo. pridit[83] A yo-derivate of *kwritus.[83]
*karnom[56] 'ancient stone, funerary monument'
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OIr. carn[56] OW carn[56] Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as PGmc *har(u)gaz.[56] Cf. also Carnac < *Karnākon (‘place with pagan stone monuments’).[56] See cairn for further discussion.
*kaylo-[84] 'omen' Gaul. caelo-, CIb. caeilo-[84][52] OIr. -chél[52] OW coil(i)ou, OBret. coel, OCo. chuillioc[84] From PIE *keh2ilo- ('whole, wealthy').[84] Source of PCelt. *dus-kaylo- (bad omen'; cf. Gaul. dus-celi-, OIr. do-chél) and *su-kaylo- ('good omen'; cf. Gaul. su-caelo, MW hy-goel).[52] OIr. cél is a loanword from Welsh.[84]
*kentu-samonyo-[85] 'May'
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OIr. cétamain[85] MW kintevin[85] A compound of *kentu ('first') and *samon- ('summer').[85] Meaning 'first summer'.[85]
*krābri-[86] 'devotion, religious practice'
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OIr. crábud[86] MW crefydd[86] Unclear etymology.[86] MW crefydd is built on a yo-suffix and OIr. crábud on an itu-suffix.[86]
*kreddī-[87] 'believe'
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OIr. creitid[87] MW credu, MBret. crediff, OCo. cresy[87] From PIE *ḱred-dheh1- ('believe, trust').[87] The geminate must be recent since PIE *dd would have yielded PCelt. *ss.[87]
*kreddīmā[87] 'faith, believing'
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OIr. cretem[87] MBret. critim[87] Verbal noun of *kreddī-.[87]
*kredro/i[88] 'relic, sacred object'
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OIr. cretair[88] OW creirriou, MBret. kreir, Co. crêr[88] Related to *kreddī- ('believe').[88]
*(f)litu-[89] 'festival, celebration' Gaul. litu-[89][17] OIr. líth[89] OBret. lit[89] Unclear etymology.[89] The absence of cognates in other Indo-European languages makes the exact form of the PCelt. reconstruction (*flitu- or *litu-) uncertain.[89]
*marwo-natu-[90] 'funerary poem, eulogy'
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OIr. marbnad[90] MW marwnad[90] A compound of PCelt. *marwo- ('dead') and *natu- ('poem').[90] The compound, pertaining to poetic language, can probably be projected back to Proto-Celtic.[90]
*meldo-[91] 'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god' Gaul. Meldio[91]
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MW Mellt[91] Cognate with PGmc *meldunjaz and PBalt-Slav. mild-n-.[91] See Perkwunos
*natu-[92] 'poem, song, incantation' Gaul. natia, nato-[92] OIr. nath[92] MW nad[92] Probably from PIE *(s)neh1- ('sew').[92] The semantic development could be explained in terms of poetic metaphors, whereby a poem is identified with a thread.[92]
*nemetom[93][94] 'sacred grove, sanctuary' Gaul. nemēton, CIb. nemeto-[93][94] OIr. nemed[93] OBritt. Nemetona, OW -nivet, OBret. -nimet[93][94] A t-stem derived from PIE *némos ('sacrifice'), itself from *nem- ('distribute'),[94] or possibly related to PCelt. *nemos ('heaven').[93][95] Related to or borrowed into PGmc *nemedaz ('holy grove'). Greek (némos) and Latin (nemus) share the meaning 'forest, (holy) clearance', which evolved from the PIE sense 'what is distributed, sacrifice' (cf. Skt námas- 'worship, honour', Alb. nëmë 'curse, imprecation').[94] See Nemeton, goddesses Nemetona and Arnemetia, tribe Nemetes.
*nemos[93] 'heaven, sky'
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OIr. nem[93] OW nem, OBret. nem, OCo. nef[93] From PIE *nebhos ('cloud, cloudy sky').[93] The irregular *-m- of the Celtic forms is best explained as the result of assimilation (n ...bh > n ...m).[93]
*noybo-[96] 'holy' Gaul. noibo-[96][97] OIr. noíb[97][97]
–
From PIE *noybhos.[97]
*rūnā[98] 'secret, magic' Gaul. -runus (?), Lep. Runatis (?)[98] OIr. rún[98] MW rin, MBret. rin, Co. rin-[98] Related to PGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery').[98] Gaul. Cobrunus (< *com-rūnos 'confident') is probably cognate with MW cyfrin, MBret. queffrin and MIr. comrún ('shared secret, confidence'); Lep. Runatis may be derived from *runo-ātis ('belonging to the secret').[99] See Runes.
*samoni-[100] 'assembly, (feast of the) first month of the year' Gaul. Samon-[100] MIr. Samain[100]
–
From PIE *smHon- ('reunion, assembly').[100] Name of a month or feast. The original meaning is best explained as 'assembly (of the living and the dead)' (cf. OIr. -samain 'swarm'). Links to PCelt. *samon- ('summer') appear to be folk etymologies.[101][100] See Samhain for further discussion.
*sakro-[102] 'consecrated, cursed' Gaul. sacro-[103][102]
–
MW hagr, MBret. hagr, Co. hager[102] From PIE *sh2k-ro- ('sacred').[102] The Brittonic cognates mean 'ugly', i.e. 'cursed' < 'consecrated to infernal, malevolent deities'. The original meaning was probably close to that of Latin sācer, meaning 'consecrated', but also 'worthy to be sacrificed', 'cursed'.[103][102] Cognate to Latin sacerdos, 'priest'.[102]
*sedo- ~ *sīdos[104] 'tumulus (inhabited by supernatural beings), peace' Gaul. sedum, sidum[104] OIr. síd[104] MW hedd, OBret. hed[104] From PIE sēds gen. sedos ('seat').[104] See sidhe.
*soyto-[105] 'magic'
–
–
MW hud, MBret. hud, Co. hus[104] Probably originally identical to PIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from *seh2i- ('to bind').[104][51] Cognate with PGmc *saidaz ('magic, charm') and Lith. saitas ('soothsaying, talisman').[51] Source of PCelt. *soyto-lo- ('charming, illusory')[104]
*to-fare-ufo-kan-o-[106] 'prophesise'
–
OIr. do-aurchain[106] MW darogan[106] From PCelt. to-fare- ('towards'), attached to *ufo- ('under') and *kan-o- ('sing').[106]
*wātis[107] 'seer, sooth-sayer' Gaul. uáteis[108][107] OIr. fáith[107]
–
From PIE *weh2-ti- ('prophet'). Related to PGmc *wōðaz ('possessed, inspired, delirious, raging') > ON Óðr.[29][107] Also attested in the Gaulish theonym Uatiounos (< wātio-mno-, 'who prophesies'). See also OIr. fethid ('sees, observes') and OW guetid (< *wet-o- 'say'), perhaps linked to Indo-European divinatory practice combining observation of nature with poetic expression.[108] See vates for further discussion.
*wātus[109] 'poetic inspiration, prophesy' Gaul. Uatus, Uatuiae[108] OIr. fáth[109] MW gwawd[109] From PIE *weh2-tu- ('prophesy').[29][107] The stem is also found in the Celtic theonym from Belgica Vatumar-.[110]
*weletos[111][112] 'seer' Gaul. uelets[112] OIr. filed[112] MW gwelet, MBret. guelet[112] From PIE *wel-o- ('to see').[111] OIr. filed is the genitive form of filí ('poet, seer'). The ancient Germanic Weleda, the name of a seeress, is most likely a borrowing from Gaulish *ueletā ('seeress'), with regular Germanic sound shift -t- > -d-.[112]
*widlmā[113] 'seeress, sorceress' Gaul. uidluas[113] OIr. Fedelm[113] W gwyddon[113] From PCelt. *wid- ('to see, to know').[113] Gaul. uidluas may be a genitive form of *uildua, in which case it may be derived from *widlmā with lenition (like in anuana < *anman- 'name').[113]
*yālo-[114] 'praise, worship'
–
OIr. áil[114] MW iawl, OBret. iolent[114] From PIE *(H)yeh2lo- ('zeal').[114]
Note: Gaul. = Gaulish; Gall. = Gallaecian; Lep. = Lepontic; CIb. = Celtiberian; OIr. = Old Irish; MIr. = Middle Irish; OBritt. = Old Brittonic; OW = Old Welsh; MW = Middle Welsh; Pict. = Pictish; OBret. = Old Breton; MBret. = Middle Breton; OCo. = Old Cornish
See also
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Ancient Celtic religion
Celtic Animism
Celtic mythology
Proto-Germanic paganism
Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism
References
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This article has an unclear citation style. (January 2024)
Citations
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Koch 2020, p. 80.
Koch 2020, p. 17.
Mac Cana 1970, pp. 16–20.
Green 1997, p. 1.
Koch 2020, pp. 79–80.
Koch 2005, pp. 1404–1406.
Mac Cana 1970, pp. 14–16.
Green 1997, pp. 2–3.
Delamarre 2003, p. 72.
Koch 2005, p. 195.
Delamarre 2003, p. 81.
Koch 2020, p. 90.
Matasović 2009, p. 70.
Matasović 2009, p. 78.
Delamarre 2003, p. 87.
Matasović 2009, p. 135.
Delamarre 2003, p. 204.
Delamarre 2003, p. 182.
Matasović 2009, p. 164.
Matasović 2009, p. 248.
Delamarre 2003, p. 217.
Koch 2005, p. 1389.
Matasović 2009, p. 253.
Delamarre 2003, p. 220.
Matasović 2009, p. 350.
MacKillop 2004, s.v. Nodons, Nudd and Nuadu Airgetlám.
Matasović 2009, p. 297.
Delamarre 2003, p. 239.
Koch 2020, p. 140.
Koch 2020, p. 139.
Matasović 2009, p. 384.
Koch 2020, pp. 142–144.
Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie (1973). Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. p. 90.
Matasović 2009, p. 423.
Koch 2005, p. 749.
Delamarre 2003, p. 320.
Williams, Mark (2017). Ireland's Immortals: A History of the Gods of Irish Myth. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 194–247 [198]. doi:10.1515/9781400883325-009. "Linguistically cognate with Irish Finn is Welsh Gwynn, a figure who appears in Welsh tradition as a supernatural hunter ..."
Sims-Williams, Patrick (2011). Irish Influence on Medieval Welsh Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780199588657.
Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí (1999). The Sacred Isle: Belief and Religion in Pre-Christian Ireland. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 126. ISBN 9780851157474.
Sims-Williams, Patrick (1990). "Some Celtic Otherworld Terms". Celtic Language, Celtic Culture: a Festschrift for Eric P. Hamp. Ford & Bailie Publishers. p. 58.
Duval, Paul Marie. "Cultes gaulois et gallo-romains. 1. Données rituelles et mythologiques attestées". In: Travaux sur la Gaule (1946-1986). Rome: École Française de Rome, 1989. p. 245. (Publications de l'École française de Rome, 116)
www.persee.fr/doc/efr_0000-0000_1989_ant_116_1_3665
Jacques Lacroix (2007). Les noms d'origine gauloise - La Gaule des dieux. Errance. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-2-87772-349-7.
Zeidler, Jürgen (2003). "On the etymology of Grannus". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 53 (1): 77-92 [86 and note nr. 64]. doi:10.1515/ZCPH.2003.77. "An epithet [of Apollo] which might also be quoted in this regard is Vindonnus 'the white, brilliant one' at Essarois (Côte d'Or)."
Ziegler, Sabine (1994). Die Sprache der altirischen Ogam-Inschriften. Historische Sprachforschung (Historical Linguistics) (in German). Vol. 36. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 244. ISBN 9783525262252.
Matasović 2009, p. 325.
Matasović 2009, p. 24.
Koch 2005, p. 1200.
Matasović 2009, p. 73.
Koch 2005, p. 238.
Matasović 2009, p. 96.
Koch 2020, p. 144.
Delamarre 2003, p. 158.
Grzega, Joachim (2001). Romania Gallica Cisalpina: Etymologisch-geolinguistische Studien zu den oberitalienisch-rätoromanischen Keltizismen (in German). Berlin, New York: Max Niemeyer Verlag. p. 168 (entry "dūsius"). doi:10.1515/9783110944402. ISBN 978-3-484-52311-1.
Matasović 2009, p. 278.
Matasović 2009, p. 340.
Koch 2020, p. 142.
Delamarre 2003, p. 36.
Matasović 2009, p. 29.
Delamarre 2003, p. 50.
Delamarre 2003, p. 47.
Matasović 2009, p. 67.
Matasović 2009, p. 107.
Matasović 2009, p. 25.
Matasović 2009, pp. 25, 62.
Delamarre 2003, p. 32.
Matasović 2009, p. 153.
Matasović 2009, p. 34.
Koch 2005, p. 51.
Delamarre 2003, p. 44.
Matasović 2009, p. 35.
Matasović 2009, p. 47.
Koch 2005, p. 148.
Delamarre 2003, p. 67.
Matasović 2009, p. 56.
Matasović 2009, p. 79.
Matasović 2009, p. 92.
Matasović 2009, p. 93.
Delamarre 2003, p. 149.
Koch 2005, p. 615.
Matasović 2009, p. 128.
Matasović 2009, p. 140.
Matasović 2009, p. 182.
Delamarre 2003, p. 253.
Matasović 2009, p. 197.
Matasović 2009, p. 201.
Matasović 2009, p. 220.
Matasović 2009, p. 221.
Matasović 2009, p. 222.
Matasović 2009, p. 241.
Matasović 2009, p. 259.
Koch 2020, p. 143.
Matasović 2009, p. 284.
Matasović 2009, p. 288.
Koch 2020, p. 141.
Delamarre 2003, p. 234.
Matasović 2009, p. 286.
Delamarre 2003, p. 236.
Matasović 2009, p. 316.
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Matasović 2009, p. 405.
Koch, John. "Altgermanische und altkeltische Theonyme: Die epigraphische Evidenz aus der Kontaktzone. Ein Handbuch zu ihrer Etymologie [review]". In: Journal of Indo-European Studies; Washington Vol. 50, Ed. 1/2, (Spring/Summer 2022): 291-296 [294].
Matasović 2009, p. 412.
Delamarre 2003, p. 311.
Delamarre 2003, p. 319.
Matasović 2009, p. 433.
Bibliography
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Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental. Errance. ISBN 9782877723695.
Green, Miranda (1997). Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-89393-5.
Koch, John T. (2005). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0.
Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West. University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. ISBN 9781907029325.
Mac Cana, Proinsias (1970). Celtic Mythology. Chancellor. ISBN 978-1-85152-930-8.
MacKillop, James (2004). A dictionary of Celtic mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860967-1.
Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. ISBN 9789004173361.
Further reading
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Blažek, Václav (2008). "Celtic 'Smith' and His Colleagues". Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics. 32: 67–85. JSTOR 40997494.
Joseph, Lionel S.; Weiss, Michael L. (2024). "Gaulish *uidlu(i)a 'sorceress'". Ériu. 74: 31–38. doi:10.1353/eri.2024.a949107.
Kalygin, Victor (2003). "Some archaic elements of Celtic cosmology". Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie. 53 (1): 70–76. doi:10.1515/ZCPH.2003.70. S2CID 162904613.
Muradova, Anna (2009). "Бинарные оппозиции в кельтской космологии: на материале современного бретонского фольклора" [Binary Oppositions in Celtic Cosmology: Modern Breton Folklore Data]. Studia Celto-Slavica (in Russian). 2: 147–153. doi:10.54586/LMYJ3678.
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Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
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Proto-Indo-Iranian religion was the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples and includes topics such as the mythology, legendry, folk tales, and folk beliefs of early Indo-Iranian culture. Reconstructed concepts include the universal force *Hṛta- (Sanskrit rta, Avestan asha), the sacred plant and drink *sawHma- (Sanskrit Soma, Avestan Haoma) and gods of social order such as *mitra- (Sanskrit Mitra, Avestan and Old Persian Mithra, Miϑra) and *bʰaga- (Sanskrit Bhaga, Avestan and Old Persian Baga). Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is an archaic offshoot of Indo-European religion.
Origins and development
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Indo-Iranian languages include three subgroups: the Indo-Aryan languages (including the Dardic languages), the Iranian languages (east and west), and the Nuristani languages. From these various and dispersed cultures, a set of common ideas may be reconstructed from which a common, unattested proto-Indo-Iranian source may be deduced.
Relationship to Proto-Indo-European religion
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Main article: Proto-Indo-European religion
When Vedic texts were the oldest surviving evidence of early Indo-European-speaking peoples, it was assumed that these texts preserved aspects of Proto-Indo-European culture with particular accuracy. Many ethnologists hoped to unify Indo-Iranian, Celtic, Norse, Greek, Germanic and Roman into a Proto-Indo-European religion. Max Müller believed that Indo-Iranian religion began as sun worship. Georges Dumézil stressed the tripartite social system of Indo-European religion and society. Later scholarship has moved away from considering all these religions near-identical.
Development
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Some beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, the word 'daeva,' which appears in the Avesta, also bears a linguistic relationship to the Sanskrit word 'deva,' referring to one of the principal classes of gods, as well as other related words throughout the Indo-European traditions. Indeed, Indra, the greatest of the devas from Vedic literature, is often listed in Zoroastrian texts as one of the greatest of the evil forces, sometimes second only to Angra Mainyu himself.[1] In the traditional Zoroastrian confession of faith as recorded in the Avesta, the rejection of the daevas is one of the most significant qualifiers for a follower of the tradition, alongside worshipping Ahura Mazda and following the teachings of Zarathustra. Similarly, the parallels between the malevolent Vedic Asuras and benevolent Zoroastrian Ahuras are particularly obvious and striking.Varuna, the most powerful of the Asuras, does not directly correspond to Ahura Mazda but shares several traits in common with him, particularly in terms of his role as king among the lesser gods and arbiter of law and morality among mortals. Even as Ahura Mazda rules by and upholds asha, the cosmic moral order, in the Avesta, so too do Varuna and the Asuras uphold the analogous concept of rta in the Vedas.[1]
Sometimes certain myths developed in altogether different ways. The Rig-Vedic Sarasvati is linguistically and functionally cognate with Avestan *Haraxvaitī Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā[citation needed]. In the Rig-Veda (6,61,5–7) she battles a serpent called Vritra, who has hoarded all of the Earth's water. In contrast, in early portions of the Avesta, Iranian *Harahvati is the world-river that flows down from the mythical central Mount Hara. But *Harahvati does no battle — she is blocked by an obstacle (Avestan for obstacle: vərəϑra) placed there by Angra Mainyu.
Contemporary traces
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The pre-Islamic religion of the Nuristani people and extant religion of the Kalash people is significantly influenced by the original religion of the Indo-Iranians, infused with accretions developed locally.[2][3][4][5][6]
Cognate terms
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By way of the comparative method, Indo-Iranian philologists, a variety of historical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Indo-Iranian folklore and mythology (reconstructions are indicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present section includes both reconstructed forms and proposed motifs from the Proto-Indo-Iranian period, generally associated with the Sintashta culture (2050–1900 BCE).[7]
The following is a list of cognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of the Rigveda and Avesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (ca. 2nd millennium BCE) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic Iranian branches.
Divine beings
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See also: Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni
Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Indo-Aryan Iranian Mitanni Etymology Notes
*Háǰʰiš Ahi Aži – –
*Aryamā́ Skt Aryaman Av. Airiiaman – –
*Bʰagás Skt Bhaga OPers. *Baga[8][a] – OPers. *Baga is inferred from Bāgayādi, month of the feast *Bagayāda- ('worshiping Baga = Mithra').[8] The etymology indicates a societal deity that distributes wealth and prosperity.[11][12] Slavic bog ('god') and bogátyj ('rich') are generally seen as loanwords from Iranian.[13]
*Ćarwa[14] Skt Śarva[14] YAv. Sauruua[14] – Perhaps related to ToB śer(u)we, ToA śaru 'hunter'.[14] Probably meaning 'hunter' (cf. Khot. hasirä 'quarry, hunted beast', Oss. suryn 'to chase, hunt', syrd 'wild beast'). An epithet of Rudra or Śiva in Sanskrit. Name of one the daēuua (demons) in Young Avestan.[14]
*Dyauš[15] Skt Dyáuṣ[15] OAv. diiaoš[15] – From PIE *dyēus, the daylight-sky god.[15] Meaning 'heaven, daylight sky'. Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European sky-god (cf. Hitt. šīuš, Grk Zeus, Lat. Jove)[15] See Dyēus for further information.
*Hagníš[16] Skt Agni[16] YAv. Dāšt-āɣni[16] From PIE *h₁n̥gʷnis, the fire as an active force.[16] Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European fire-god (cf. Lith. Ugnis, Alb. enjte).[16] See H1n̥gʷnis for further information.
*Hāpam-nápāts[17] Skt Apā́m nápāt[17] YAv. apᶏm napāt[17] – From PIE *h2ep- ('water') and *h2nepot- ('grandson, descendant').[17] Meaning 'Grandsons of the Waters'.[17] See Apam Napat for further information.
*Haramati[18] Skt Arámati[18] Av. Ārmaiti[18] – No known IE cognate.[18] Goddess of obedience and piety. Cf. Skt arámanas ('obedient') and Av. ārmaiti ('piety, devotion').[18]
*HatHarwan[19] Skt Átharvan[19] YAv. Āθrauuan[19] – Perhaps a borrowing from a Central Asian language (cf. ToA atär, ToB etre 'hero').[19] Name of a primordial priest. The Sanskrit cognate is the name of the primordial priest, while the Young Avestan form designates the first social class (i.e. the priests). Scholars have rendered the stem *HatHar- as a 'religious-magical fluid' or 'magical potency'.[19]
*Hwi(H)waswant[20] Skt Vivásvant[20] YAv. Vīuuanhvant[20] – From PIE *h2ues- 'dawn'.[20] Meaning 'morning dawn'. Father of *YamHa (see below). Cf. Skt vaivasvatá and Av. vīuuaŋhuša- ('descending from Vivasvant').[20]
(?) *Wr̥trás[21] Skt Vṛtrá[21] YAv. Vǝrǝθraɣna[21] – No known IE cognate.[21] *wr̥trás means 'defence' (the original meaning may have been 'cover'). Skt Vṛtrá is the name of a demon slain by Indra, often depicted as a cobra. YAv. Vǝrǝθraɣna, meaning 'breaking of defence, victory', is the name of a god. Cf. also Middle Persian Wahrām ('war god, god of victory'). The Arm. god Vahagn is a loanword from Iranian.[21]
*Hušā́s[22] Skt Uṣás[22] OAv. Ušå[22][23] – From PIE *h₂éws-ōs, the Dawn-goddess.[22] Name of the dawn-goddess.[22] See H₂éwsōs for further information.
*Índras[24] Skt Índra[24] YAv. Indra[24] Mit. Indara[25] No known IE cognate.[24] –
*Krćānu ~ *Krćāni[26] Skt Kṛśā́nu[26] YAv. Kərəsāni[26] – No known IE cognate.[26] Divine being associated with the Soma. In Sanskrit, the divine archer that guards the celestial Soma; in Young Avestan, name of a hostile king driven away by Haoma.[26]
*Mánuš Skt Manu[27] Av. *Manūš[27] – From PIE *Manu- ('Man', 'ancestor of humankind'; cf. Germ. Mannus).[27] Av. *Manūš.čiθra ('image of Manuš') is inferred from Old Persian Manūščihr, the name of a high priest.[27]
*Mitrás Skt Mitrá Av. Miθra Mit. Mitra[25] See Mitra.
Skt Nā́satyā[28] Av. Nā̊ŋhaiθya[28] Mit. Našattiya[25] Probably from PIE *nes- ('save, heal'; cf. Goth. nasjan).[28] Skt Nā́satyā is another name for the Aśvínā ('horse-possessors'); Nā̊ŋhaiθya is the name of a demon in the Zoroastrian religious system. According to scholar Douglas Frame, "the Iranian singular suggests that in Common Indo-Iranian the twins’ dual name also occurred in the singular to name one twin in opposition to the other".[28] See Divine Twins.
*Pr̥tHwíH[29] Skt Pṛth(i)vī́[29] YAv. ząm pərəθβīm[29] – From PIE *pleth₂wih₁ 'the broad one'.[29] Name of the deified earth. The Sanskrit poetic formula kṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth') is identical to YAv. ząm pərəθβīm (id.)[29] See Dʰéǵʰōm for further information.
*PuHšā́[30] Skt Pisán[30] – – From PIE *p(e)h2uson (cf. Grk Πάων < *pausōn).[30] Name of a herding-god, protector of roads, inspector of creatures.[30]
*Sušna[31] Skt Śúsna[31] Sh. sāɣ(d)[31] – From PIE ḱues-.[31] Name of a malevolent being. Proto-Iranian *sušnā- is inferred from Sh. sāɣ̌(d) ('big snake, dragon').[31]
*Tritá[32] Skt Tritá[32] YAv. θrita[32] – From PIE trito 'third'.[32] Mythical hero; one of the first preparers of the Soma.[32]
Skt Váruṇa Av. *Vouruna(?)[33] Mit. Aruna[25] The Indo-Iranian ancestry is supported by Mitanni Aruna.[25] The Avestan *Vouruna is postulated as the form the god would have taken in Iran, perhaps later replaced by Ahura Mazdā or Apam Napat.[33]
*Ućan[34] Skt Uśánā[34] YAv. Usan[34] – Probably a non-IE name based on the same root as *ućig- ('sacrificer').[34] Name of a sage.[34]
*HwaHyúš and *HwáHatas[35] Skt Vāyú and Vā́ta[35] OAv. Vaiiu and Vāta[35] – From PIE *h2ueh1iu and *h2ueh1nto.[35] Gods of winds.[35]
*YámHas[36] Skt Yamá[36] OAv. yə̃ma-[37]
YAv. Yima[36] – From PIE *imH-o 'twin'.[36] Meaning 'twin'; inherited from Proto-Indo-European (cf. Old Norse Ymir, the primeval giant). In Indo-Iranian, name of the mythical primeval man, first presser of the Soma, and son of the god *Hui(H)uasuant .[36] Cognate to the Indic goddess Yamuna, a deified river. See Indo-European cosmogony for further information.
Locations
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Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*Háćmā[38] Skt áśman[38] YAv. asman[38] From PIE *h₂éḱmōn, 'stone, stone-made weapon; heavenly vault of stone'.[39][40] Skt áśman means 'stone, rock, sling-stone, thunderbolt', YAv. asman 'stone, sling-stone, heaven'.[38] The original PIE meaning appears to have been 'stone(-made weapon)' > 'heavenly vault of stone' (cf. Grk ákmōn 'anvil, meteoric stone, thunderbolt, heaven', Goth. himins 'heaven', Lith. akmuõ 'stone').[39][40] See Perkwunos (Heavenly vault of stone) for further information.
*SáraswatiH / saras-u̯at-iH-[41] Skt sárasvatī YAv. haraxᵛatī
OPers. Harauvati[42] From PIE *séles 'marsh'.[43] The name refers to a river (Sarasvati River in Sanskrit; or Arachosia). Also the name of a river goddess, Saraswati.[44]
Entities
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Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Meaning Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*daywás[45] god, deity Skt devá[45] OAv. daēuua[45][46] From PIE *deywós 'celestial > god'.[45] The Iranian word is at the origin of the div, a creature of Persian mythology, later spread to Turkic and Islamic mythologies.[47]
*daywiH[48] goddess Skt devī́[48] YAv. daēuuī[48] From PIE *deywih2 'goddess'.[48]
*g(h)andh(a)rwas- ~ g(h)andh(a)rbhas-[49] Skt gandharvá[49] YAv. gandərəba[49] No known IE cognate.[49] Group of mythical beings.
*Hasuras[50] god, lord Skt ásura[50] Av. ahura[50] From PIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth').[50] The singular in the Avesta refers to Ahura Mazda.[51] According to Asko Parpola and Václav Blažek, the word has been borrowed into Finno-Ugric/Uralic languages as *asera- (Parpola) or *asɤrɜ- (Blazek), both meaning 'lord, prince, leader'.[52][53]
Other
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Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction Meaning Indo-Aryan Iranian Etymology Notes
*bhišáj[54] 'healer' Skt bhišáj-[54] OAv. biš-[54] No known IE cognate.[54]
*dać-[55] 'to offer, worship' Skt dáś-[55] OAv. dasəma[55] From PIE *deḱ-.[55]
*diuiHa[56] 'heavenly, divine' Skt divyá[56] – From PIE *diwyós 'heavenly, divine'.[56]
*gau(H)-[57] 'call, invoke' Skt gav(i)[57] – From PIE gewh2-.[57] cf. also Osset. argawyn < *agraw- ('to perform a church service').[57]
*grH-[58] 'song of praise, invocation' Skt gír[58] OAv. gar-[58] From PIE gwerH-.[58]
*(H)anću[59] 'Soma plant' Skt amśú-[59] YAv. ᶏsu-[59] Presumably a loanword.[59]
*HaHpriH[60] 'wishing, blessing, invocation' Skt āprī́[60] YAv. āfrī[60] No known IE cognate.[60]
*Hiáj[8] 'to worship, sacrifice' Skt yaj[8] Av. yaz-[8] From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.[8]
*Hiájata[61] 'worthy of worship, sacrifice' Skt yajatá[61] Av. yazata-[61] From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.[61]
*Hiájna[62] 'worship, sacrifice' Skt yajna[62] Av. yasna-[62] From PIE *hieh2ǵ-.[62]
*Hiša[63] 'refreshing libation' Skt ídā[63] OAv. īžā[63] No known IE cognate.[63]
*Hižd-[64] 'to invoke, worship'[64] Skt īd-[64] OAv. īšas-[64] From PIE *h2eisd-.[64]
*(H)rši[65] 'seer'[65] Skt ṛ́si[65] OAv. ərəšiš[65] No known IE cognate.[65]
*Hrta[66] 'truth, (world-)order' Skt ṛtá[66] OAv. aša, arəta[66] From PIE *h2rtó.[66]
*HrtaHuan[67] 'belonging to Truth' Skt ṛtā́van[67] OAv. ašauuan[67] From PIE *h2rtó.[67]
*j́hau-[68] 'pour, sacrifice, offer'[68] Skt hav[68] Av. ā-zuiti[68] From PIE *ǵheu-.[68]
*j́hau-tar[69] 'priest' Skt hótar[69] Av. zaotar[69] From PIE *ǵheu-.[69]
*j́hau-traH[70] 'sacrificial pouring' Skt hótrā[70] YAv. zaoθrā[70] From PIE *ǵheu-.[70]
*namas[71] 'to worship, honour' Skt námas[71] Av. nəmah[71] From PIE *némos.[71]
*sauma[72] 'Soma-plant', a deified drink Skt sóma[72] YAv. haoma[72] No known IE cognate.[72] Probably referring to ephedra.[72]
*uájra[73] Mythical weapon Skt vájra[73] YAv. vazra[73] From PIE *ueh2ǵ-.[73] Mythical weapon associated with Indra in India and with Mithra in Iran. Cf. Arm. varz ('stick'), a loanword from Iranian.[73]
*uand(H)[74] 'to praise, honour' Skt vandi[74] YAv. vandaēta[74] No known IE cognate.[74]
*ućig[75] 'sacrificer' Skt uśíj[75] OAv. usij[75] Likely a borrowing from a Central Asian language.[75] Skt uśíj is an epithet of sacrificers and of Agni. OAv. usij designates a 'sacrificer which is hostile towards the Zoroastrian religion'.[75]
*uipra[76] 'exctasic, inspired' Skt vípra[76] YAv. vifra[76] No known IE cognate.[76] See Viprata for further information.
*urata[77] 'rule, order, religious commandment, observance' Skt vratá[77] OAv. uruuata[77] No known IE cognate.[77]
See also
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Ætsæg Din
Fire in ancient Iranian culture
Hinduism
Historical Vedic religion
Indian religions
Indo-Iranians
Iranian religions
Persian mythology
Religion and culture in ancient Iran
Zoroastrianism
Proto-Celtic religion
Proto-Germanic folklore
Scythian religion
Notes
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The word baga is attested once in Old Avestan (possibly, but its interpretation remains unclear), and about ten times in the Young Avesta: baɣa- appears as an epithet for Ahura Mazda, the Moon and Miθra, while a compound hu-baɣa- refers to female deities.[9][10]
References
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"THE DAEVAS IN ZOROASTRIAN SCRIPTURE" (PDF). University of Missouri System. Retrieved 2023-12-24.
Searle, Mike (28 March 2013). Colliding Continents: A geological exploration of the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Tibet. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-165249-3.
Camerapix (1998). Spectrum Guide to Pakistan. Interlink Books. ISBN 978-1-56656-240-9.
Strand, Richard F. (31 December 2005). "Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan". nuristan.info. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
"The Kalash: Pakistan's last animist tribe". Atalayar. 29 March 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
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Lubotsky 2011, s.v. dyáv-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. agni-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. nápāt-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. arámati-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ártharvan-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vivásvant-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vṛtrá-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. usás-.
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Lubotsky 2011, s.v. śúsna-.
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Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vā́ta- and vāyú-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yamá
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Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ásura-.
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Lubotsky 2011, s.v. dáś-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. divyá-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. gav(i).
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. gír-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. amśú-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. āprī́-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yajatá-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. yajñá-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. íd-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. īd-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ṛ́si-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ṛtá-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. ṛtā́van-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. hav-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. hótar-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. hótrā-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. námas-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. sóma-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vájra-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vandi-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. uśíj-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vípra-.
Lubotsky 2011, s.v. vratá-.
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Further reading
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Gnoli, Gherardo (2012). "Indo-Iranian Religion". Encyclopedia Iranica.
Oberlies, Thomas (2024). "The Indo-Iranian Religion". The Religion of the Ṛgveda. Oxford: Oxford Academic. pp. 47–71. doi:10.1093/oso/9780192868213.003.0004. ISBN 978-0-19-286821-3. Accessed 23 Mar. 2024.
Sadovski, Velizar (2023). "A Step Forward in Reaching toward the Indo-Iranian Background of the Avestan and Vedic Liturgies: On the Occasion of the Volume Aux sources des liturgies indo-iraniennes, éd. par Céline Redard, Juanjo Ferrer-Losilla, Hamid Moein & Philippe Swennen". Indo-Iranian Journal. 66 (2). Brill: 149–183. doi:10.1163/15728536-06602005. S2CID 259547451. Accessed 2 December 2023.
Last edited 27 days ago by Alcaios
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